Original text: World Tipitaka Edition
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Image generated by Imagen 4, representing the Buddha rolling forth the Wheel of Dhamma to the five ascetics who were his former companions.
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(10.)53. Atha kho bhagavato etadahosi— “kassa nu kho ahaṃ paṭhamaṃ dhammaṃ deseyyaṃ? Ko imaṃ dhammaṃ khippameva ājānissatī”ti? Atha kho bhagavato etadahosi— “ayaṃ kho āḷāro kālāmo paṇḍito byatto medhāvī dīgharattaṃ apparajakkhajātiko; yannūnāhaṃ āḷārassa kālāmassa paṭhamaṃ dhammaṃ deseyyaṃ, so imaṃ dhammaṃ khippameva ājānissatī”ti. Atha kho antarahitā devatā bhagavato ārocesi— “sattāhakālaṅkato, bhante, āḷāro kālāmo”ti. Bhagavatopi kho ñāṇaṃ udapādi— “sattāhakālaṅkato āḷāro kālāmo”ti. Atha kho bhagavato etadahosi— “mahājāniyo kho āḷāro kālāmo; sace hi so imaṃ dhammaṃ suṇeyya, khippameva ājāneyyā”ti.
54. Atha kho bhagavato etadahosi— “kassa nu kho ahaṃ paṭhamaṃ dhammaṃ deseyyaṃ? Ko imaṃ dhammaṃ khippameva ājānissatī”ti? Atha kho bhagavato etadahosi— “ayaṃ kho udako rāmaputto paṇḍito byatto medhāvī dīgharattaṃ apparajakkhajātiko; yannūnāhaṃ udakassa rāmaputtassa paṭhamaṃ dhammaṃ deseyyaṃ, so imaṃ dhammaṃ khippameva ājānissatī”ti. Atha kho antarahitā devatā bhagavato ārocesi— “abhidosakālaṅkato, bhante, udako rāmaputto”ti. Bhagavatopi kho ñāṇaṃ udapādi— “abhidosakālaṅkato udako rāmaputto”ti. Atha kho bhagavato etadahosi— “mahājāniyo kho udako rāmaputto; sace hi so imaṃ dhammaṃ suṇeyya, khippameva ājāneyyā”ti.
55. Atha kho bhagavato etadahosi— “kassa nu kho ahaṃ paṭhamaṃ dhammaṃ deseyyaṃ? Ko imaṃ dhammaṃ khippameva ājānissatī”ti? Atha kho bhagavato etadahosi— “bahukārā kho me pañcavaggiyā bhikkhū, ye maṃ padhānapahitattaṃ upaṭṭhahiṃsu; yannūnāhaṃ pañcavaggiyānaṃ bhikkhūnaṃ paṭhamaṃ dhammaṃ deseyyan”ti. Atha kho bhagavato etadahosi— “kahaṃ nu kho etarahi pañcavaggiyā bhikkhū viharantī”ti? Addasā kho bhagavā dibbena cakkhunā visuddhena atikkantamānusakena pañcavaggiye bhikkhū bārāṇasiyaṃ viharante isipatane migadāye. Atha kho bhagavā uruvelāyaṃ yathābhirantaṃ viharitvā yena bārāṇasī tena cārikaṃ pakkāmi.
(11.)
56. Addasā kho upako ājīvako bhagavantaṃ antarā ca gayaṃ antarā ca bodhiṃ addhānamaggappaṭipannaṃ, disvāna bhagavantaṃ etadavoca— “vippasannāni kho te, āvuso, indriyāni, parisuddho chavivaṇṇo pariyodāto. Kaṃsi tvaṃ, āvuso, uddissa pabbajito? Ko vā te satthā? Kassa vā tvaṃ dhammaṃ rocesī”ti? Evaṃ vutte, bhagavā upakaṃ ājīvakaṃ gāthāhi ajjhabhāsi—
57. “Sabbābhibhū sabbavidūhamasmi,
Sabbesu dhammesu anūpalitto;
Sabbañjaho taṇhākkhaye vimutto,
Sayaṃ abhiññāya kamuddiseyyaṃ.
58. Na me ācariyo atthi,
sadiso me na vijjati;
Sadevakasmiṃ lokasmiṃ,
natthi me paṭipuggalo.
59. Ahañhi arahā loke,
ahaṃ satthā anuttaro;
Ekomhi sammāsambuddho,
sītibhūtosmi nibbuto.
60. Dhammacakkaṃ pavattetuṃ,
Gacchāmi kāsinaṃ puraṃ;
Andhībhūtasmiṃ lokasmiṃ,
Āhañchaṃ amatadundubhin”ti.
61. “Yathā kho tvaṃ, āvuso, paṭijānāsi, arahasi anantajino”ti.
62. “Mādisā ve jinā honti,
ye pattā āsavakkhayaṃ;
Jitā me pāpakā dhammā,
tasmāhamupaka jino”ti.
63. Evaṃ vutte, upako ājīvako hupeyyapāvusoti vatvā sīsaṃ okampetvā ummaggaṃ gahetvā pakkāmi.
(12.)
64. Atha kho bhagavā anupubbena cārikaṃ caramāno yena bārāṇasī isipatanaṃ migadāyo, yena pañcavaggiyā bhikkhū tenupasaṅkami. Addasaṃsu kho pañcavaggiyā bhikkhū bhagavantaṃ dūratova āgacchantaṃ; disvāna aññamaññaṃ katikaṃ saṇṭhapesuṃ— “ayaṃ, āvuso, samaṇo gotamo āgacchati, bāhulliko padhānavibbhanto āvatto bāhullāya. So neva abhivādetabbo, na paccuṭṭhātabbo, nāssa pattacīvaraṃ paṭiggahetabbaṃ; api ca kho āsanaṃ ṭhapetabbaṃ, sace so ākaṅkhissati nisīdissatī”ti. Yathā yathā kho bhagavā pañcavaggiye bhikkhū upasaṅkamati tathā tathā pañcavaggiyā bhikkhū nāsakkhiṃsu sakāya katikāya saṇṭhātuṃ. Asaṇṭhahantā bhagavantaṃ paccuggantvā eko bhagavato pattacīvaraṃ paṭiggahesi, eko āsanaṃ paññapesi, eko pādodakaṃ, eko pādapīṭhaṃ, eko pādakaṭhalikaṃ upanikkhipi. Nisīdi bhagavā paññatte āsane; nisajja kho bhagavā pāde pakkhālesi. Apissu bhagavantaṃ nāmena ca āvusovādena ca samudācaranti.
65. Evaṃ vutte, bhagavā pañcavaggiye bhikkhū etadavoca— “mā, bhikkhave, tathāgataṃ nāmena ca āvusovādena ca samudācaratha. Arahaṃ, bhikkhave, tathāgato sammāsambuddho, odahatha, bhikkhave, sotaṃ, amatamadhigataṃ, ahamanusāsāmi, ahaṃ dhammaṃ desemi. Yathānusiṭṭhaṃ tathā paṭipajjamānā nacirasseva— yassatthāya kulaputtā sammadeva agārasmā anagāriyaṃ pabbajanti, tadanuttaraṃ— brahmacariyapariyosānaṃ diṭṭheva dhamme sayaṃ abhiññā sacchikatvā upasampajja viharissathā”ti. Evaṃ vutte, pañcavaggiyā bhikkhū bhagavantaṃ etadavocuṃ— “tāyapi kho tvaṃ, āvuso gotama, iriyāya, tāya paṭipadāya, tāya dukkarakārikāya nevajjhagā uttari manussadhammā alamariyañāṇadassanavisesaṃ, kiṃ pana tvaṃ etarahi, bāhulliko padhānavibbhanto āvatto bāhullāya, adhigamissasi uttari manussadhammā alamariyañāṇadassanavisesan”ti? Evaṃ vutte, bhagavā pañcavaggiye bhikkhū etadavoca— “na, bhikkhave, tathāgato bāhulliko, na padhānavibbhanto, na āvatto bāhullāya; arahaṃ, bhikkhave, tathāgato sammāsambuddho. Odahatha, bhikkhave, sotaṃ, amatamadhigataṃ ahamanusāsāmi, ahaṃ dhammaṃ desemi. Yathānusiṭṭhaṃ tathā paṭipajjamānā nacirasseva— yassatthāya kulaputtā sammadeva agārasmā anagāriyaṃ pabbajanti, tadanuttaraṃ— brahmacariyapariyosānaṃ diṭṭheva dhamme sayaṃ abhiññā sacchikatvā upasampajja viharissathā”ti.
66. Dutiyampi kho pañcavaggiyā bhikkhū bhagavantaṃ etadavocuṃ…pe… . Dutiyampi kho bhagavā pañcavaggiye bhikkhū etadavoca…pe… . Tatiyampi kho pañcavaggiyā bhikkhū bhagavantaṃ etadavocuṃ— “tāyapi kho tvaṃ, āvuso gotama, iriyāya, tāya paṭipadāya, tāya dukkarakārikāya nevajjhagā uttari manussadhammā alamariyañāṇadassanavisesaṃ, kiṃ pana tvaṃ etarahi, bāhulliko padhānavibbhanto āvatto bāhullāya, adhigamissasi uttari manussadhammā alamariyañāṇadassanavisesan”ti?
67. Evaṃ vutte bhagavā pañcavaggiye bhikkhū etadavoca— “abhijānātha me no tumhe, bhikkhave, ito pubbe evarūpaṃ pabhāvitametan”ti? “No hetaṃ, bhante”. “Arahaṃ, bhikkhave, tathāgato sammāsambuddho, odahatha, bhikkhave, sotaṃ, amatamadhigataṃ ahamanusāsāmi, ahaṃ dhammaṃ desemi. Yathānusiṭṭhaṃ tathā paṭipajjamānā nacirasseva— yassatthāya kulaputtā sammadeva agārasmā anagāriyaṃ pabbajanti, tadanuttaraṃ— brahmacariyapariyosānaṃ diṭṭheva dhamme sayaṃ abhiññā sacchikatvā upasampajja viharissathā”ti. Asakkhi kho bhagavā pañcavaggiye bhikkhū saññāpetuṃ. Atha kho pañcavaggiyā bhikkhū bhagavantaṃ sussūsiṃsu, sotaṃ odahiṃsu, aññā cittaṃ upaṭṭhāpesuṃ.
(13.)
68. Atha kho bhagavā pañcavaggiye bhikkhū āmantesi—
69. “Dveme, bhikkhave, antā pabbajitena na sevitabbā. Katame dve? Yo cāyaṃ kāmesu kāmasukhallikānuyogo hīno gammo pothujjaniko anariyo anatthasaṃhito, yo cāyaṃ attakilamathānuyogo dukkho anariyo anatthasaṃhito. Ete kho, bhikkhave, ubho ante anupagamma majjhimā paṭipadā tathāgatena abhisambuddhā cakkhukaraṇī ñāṇakaraṇī upasamāya abhiññāya sambodhāya nibbānāya saṃvattati.
70. Katamā ca sā, bhikkhave, majjhimā paṭipadā tathāgatena abhisambuddhā, cakkhukaraṇī ñāṇakaraṇī upasamāya abhiññāya sambodhāya nibbānāya saṃvattati? Ayameva ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo, seyyathidaṃ— sammādiṭṭhi, sammāsaṅkappo, sammāvācā, sammākammanto, sammāājīvo, sammāvāyāmo, sammāsati, sammāsamādhi. Ayaṃ kho sā, bhikkhave, majjhimā paṭipadā tathāgatena abhisambuddhā, cakkhukaraṇī ñāṇakaraṇī upasamāya abhiññāya sambodhāya nibbānāya saṃvattati.
(14.)
71. Idaṃ kho pana, bhikkhave, dukkhaṃ ariyasaccaṃ. Jātipi dukkhā, jarāpi dukkhā, byādhipi dukkho, maraṇampi dukkhaṃ, appiyehi sampayogo dukkho, piyehi vippayogo dukkho, yampicchaṃ na labhati tampi dukkhaṃ. Saṃkhittena, pañcupādānakkhandhā dukkhā.
72. Idaṃ kho pana, bhikkhave, dukkhasamudayaṃ ariyasaccaṃ— yāyaṃ taṇhā ponobbhavikā nandīrāgasahagatā tatratatrābhinandinī, seyyathidaṃ— kāmataṇhā, bhavataṇhā, vibhavataṇhā.
73. Idaṃ kho pana, bhikkhave, dukkhanirodhaṃ ariyasaccaṃ— yo tassāyeva taṇhāya asesavirāganirodho, cāgo, paṭinissaggo, mutti, anālayo.
74. Idaṃ kho pana, bhikkhave, dukkhanirodhagāminī paṭipadā ariyasaccaṃ— ayameva ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo, seyyathidaṃ— sammādiṭṭhi, sammāsaṅkappo, sammāvācā, sammākammanto, sammāājīvo, sammāvāyāmo, sammāsati, sammāsamādhi.
(15.)
75. Idaṃ dukkhaṃ ariyasaccanti me, bhikkhave, pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhuṃ udapādi, ñāṇaṃ udapādi, paññā udapādi, vijjā udapādi, āloko udapādi. Taṃ kho panidaṃ dukkhaṃ ariyasaccaṃ pariññeyyanti me, bhikkhave, pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhuṃ udapādi, ñāṇaṃ udapādi, paññā udapādi, vijjā udapādi, āloko udapādi. Taṃ kho panidaṃ dukkhaṃ ariyasaccaṃ pariññātanti me, bhikkhave, pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhuṃ udapādi, ñāṇaṃ udapādi, paññā udapādi, vijjā udapādi, āloko udapādi.
76. Idaṃ dukkhasamudayaṃ ariyasaccanti me, bhikkhave, pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhuṃ udapādi, ñāṇaṃ udapādi, paññā udapādi, vijjā udapādi, āloko udapādi. Taṃ kho panidaṃ dukkhasamudayaṃ ariyasaccaṃ pahātabbanti me, bhikkhave, pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhuṃ udapādi, ñāṇaṃ udapādi, paññā udapādi, vijjā udapādi, āloko udapādi. Taṃ kho panidaṃ dukkhasamudayaṃ ariyasaccaṃ pahīnanti me, bhikkhave, pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhuṃ udapādi, ñāṇaṃ udapādi, paññā udapādi, vijjā udapādi, āloko udapādi.
77. Idaṃ dukkhanirodhaṃ ariyasaccanti me, bhikkhave, pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhuṃ udapādi, ñāṇaṃ udapādi, paññā udapādi, vijjā udapādi, āloko udapādi. Taṃ kho panidaṃ dukkhanirodhaṃ ariyasaccaṃ sacchikātabbanti me, bhikkhave, pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhuṃ udapādi, ñāṇaṃ udapādi, paññā udapādi, vijjā udapādi, āloko udapādi. Taṃ kho panidaṃ dukkhanirodhaṃ ariyasaccaṃ sacchikatanti me, bhikkhave, pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhuṃ udapādi, ñāṇaṃ udapādi, paññā udapādi, vijjā udapādi, āloko udapādi.
78. Idaṃ dukkhanirodhagāminī paṭipadā ariyasaccanti me, bhikkhave, pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhuṃ udapādi, ñāṇaṃ udapādi, paññā udapādi, vijjā udapādi, āloko udapādi. Taṃ kho panidaṃ dukkhanirodhagāminī paṭipadā ariyasaccaṃ bhāvetabbanti me, bhikkhave, pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhuṃ udapādi, ñāṇaṃ udapādi, paññā udapādi, vijjā udapādi, āloko udapādi. Taṃ kho panidaṃ dukkhanirodhagāminī paṭipadā ariyasaccaṃ bhāvitanti me, bhikkhave, pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhuṃ udapādi, ñāṇaṃ udapādi, paññā udapādi, vijjā udapādi, āloko udapādi.
(16.)
79. Yāvakīvañca me, bhikkhave, imesu catūsu ariyasaccesu evaṃ tiparivaṭṭaṃ dvādasākāraṃ yathābhūtaṃ ñāṇadassanaṃ na suvisuddhaṃ ahosi, neva tāvāhaṃ, bhikkhave, sadevake loke samārake sabrahmake sassamaṇabrāhmaṇiyā pajāya sadevamanussāya anuttaraṃ sammāsambodhiṃ abhisambuddhoti paccaññāsiṃ.
80. Yato ca kho me, bhikkhave, imesu catūsu ariyasaccesu evaṃ tiparivaṭṭaṃ dvādasākāraṃ yathābhūtaṃ ñāṇadassanaṃ suvisuddhaṃ ahosi, athāhaṃ, bhikkhave, sadevake loke samārake sabrahmake sassamaṇabrāhmaṇiyā pajāya sadevamanussāya anuttaraṃ sammāsambodhiṃ abhisambuddhoti paccaññāsiṃ. Ñāṇañca pana me dassanaṃ udapādi— akuppā me vimutti, ayamantimā jāti, natthi dāni punabbhavo”ti. Idamavoca bhagavā attamanā pañcavaggiyā bhikkhū bhagavato bhāsitaṃ abhinandunti.
81. Imasmiñca pana veyyākaraṇasmiṃ bhaññamāne āyasmato koṇḍaññassa virajaṃ vītamalaṃ dhammacakkhuṃ udapādi— “yaṃ kiñci samudayadhammaṃ sabbaṃ taṃ nirodhadhamman”ti.
(17.)
82. Pavattite ca pana bhagavatā dhammacakke, bhummā devā saddamanussāvesuṃ— “etaṃ bhagavatā bārāṇasiyaṃ isipatane migadāye anuttaraṃ dhammacakkaṃ pavattitaṃ, appaṭivattiyaṃ samaṇena vā brāhmaṇena vā devena vā mārena vā brahmunā vā kenaci vā lokasmin”ti. Bhummānaṃ devānaṃ saddaṃ sutvā cātumahārājikā devā saddamanussāvesuṃ…pe… cātumahārājikānaṃ devānaṃ saddaṃ sutvā tāvatiṃsā devā…pe… yāmā devā…pe… tusitā devā…pe… nimmānaratī devā…pe… paranimmitavasavattī devā…pe… brahmakāyikā devā saddamanussāvesuṃ— “etaṃ bhagavatā bārāṇasiyaṃ isipatane migadāye anuttaraṃ dhammacakkaṃ pavattitaṃ appaṭivattiyaṃ samaṇena vā brāhmaṇena vā devena vā mārena vā brahmunā vā kenaci vā lokasmin”ti.
83. Itiha tena khaṇena, tena layena, tena muhuttena yāva brahmalokā saddo abbhuggacchi. Ayañca dasasahassilokadhātu saṅkampi sampakampi sampavedhi; appamāṇo ca uḷāro obhāso loke pāturahosi, atikkamma devānaṃ devānubhāvaṃ.
84. Atha kho bhagavā imaṃ udānaṃ udānesi— “aññāsi vata bho koṇḍañño, aññāsi vata bho koṇḍañño”ti. Iti hidaṃ āyasmato koṇḍaññassa “aññāsikoṇḍañño” tveva nāmaṃ ahosi.
(18.)
85. Atha kho āyasmā aññāsikoṇḍañño diṭṭhadhammo pattadhammo viditadhammo pariyogāḷhadhammo tiṇṇavicikiccho vigatakathaṃkatho vesārajjappatto aparappaccayo satthusāsane bhagavantaṃ etadavoca— “labheyyāhaṃ, bhante, bhagavato santike pabbajjaṃ, labheyyaṃ upasampadan”ti. “Ehi bhikkhū”ti bhagavā avoca— “svākkhāto dhammo, cara brahmacariyaṃ sammā dukkhassa antakiriyāyā”ti. Sāva tassa āyasmato upasampadā ahosi.
(19.)
86. Atha kho bhagavā tadavasese bhikkhū dhammiyā kathāya ovadi anusāsi. Atha kho āyasmato ca vappassa āyasmato ca bhaddiyassa bhagavatā dhammiyā kathāya ovadiyamānānaṃ anusāsiyamānānaṃ virajaṃ vītamalaṃ dhammacakkhuṃ udapādi— “yaṃ kiñci samudayadhammaṃ sabbaṃ taṃ nirodhadhamman”ti. Te diṭṭhadhammā pattadhammā viditadhammā pariyogāḷhadhammā tiṇṇavicikicchā vigatakathaṃkathā vesārajjappattā aparappaccayā satthusāsane bhagavantaṃ etadavocuṃ— “labheyyāma mayaṃ, bhante, bhagavato santike pabbajjaṃ, labheyyāma upasampadan”ti. “Etha bhikkhavo”ti bhagavā avoca— “svākkhāto dhammo, caratha brahmacariyaṃ sammā dukkhassa antakiriyāyā”ti. Sāva tesaṃ āyasmantānaṃ upasampadā ahosi.
87. Atha kho bhagavā tadavasese bhikkhū nīhārabhatto dhammiyā kathāya ovadi anusāsi. Yaṃ tayo bhikkhū piṇḍāya caritvā āharanti, tena chabbaggo yāpeti. Atha kho āyasmato ca mahānāmassa āyasmato ca assajissa bhagavatā dhammiyā kathāya ovadiyamānānaṃ anusāsiyamānānaṃ virajaṃ vītamalaṃ dhammacakkhuṃ udapādi— “yaṃ kiñci samudayadhammaṃ sabbaṃ taṃ nirodhadhamman”ti. Te diṭṭhadhammā pattadhammā viditadhammā pariyogāḷhadhammā tiṇṇavicikicchā vigatakathaṃkathā vesārajjappattā aparappaccayā satthusāsane bhagavantaṃ etadavocuṃ— “labheyyāma mayaṃ, bhante, bhagavato santike pabbajjaṃ, labheyyāma upasampadan”ti. “Etha bhikkhavo”ti bhagavā avoca— “svākkhāto dhammo, caratha brahmacariyaṃ sammā dukkhassa antakiriyāyā”ti. Sāva tesaṃ āyasmantānaṃ upasampadā ahosi.
(20.)
88. Atha kho bhagavā pañcavaggiye bhikkhū āmantesi—
89. “Rūpaṃ, bhikkhave, anattā. Rūpañca hidaṃ, bhikkhave, attā abhavissa, nayidaṃ rūpaṃ ābādhāya saṃvatteyya, labbhetha ca rūpe— ‘evaṃ me rūpaṃ hotu, evaṃ me rūpaṃ mā ahosī’ti. Yasmā ca kho, bhikkhave, rūpaṃ anattā, tasmā rūpaṃ ābādhāya saṃvattati, na ca labbhati rūpe— ‘evaṃ me rūpaṃ hotu, evaṃ me rūpaṃ mā ahosī’ti.
90. Vedanā anattā. Vedanā ca hidaṃ, bhikkhave, attā abhavissa, nayidaṃ vedanā ābādhāya saṃvatteyya, labbhetha ca vedanāya— ‘evaṃ me vedanā hotu, evaṃ me vedanā mā ahosī’ti. Yasmā ca kho, bhikkhave, vedanā anattā, tasmā vedanā ābādhāya saṃvattati, na ca labbhati vedanāya— ‘evaṃ me vedanā hotu, evaṃ me vedanā mā ahosī’ti.
91. Saññā anattā. Saññā ca hidaṃ, bhikkhave, attā abhavissa, nayidaṃ saññā ābādhāya saṃvatteyya, labbhetha ca saññāya— ‘evaṃ me saññā hotu, evaṃ me saññā mā ahosī’ti. Yasmā ca kho, bhikkhave, saññā anattā, tasmā saññā ābādhāya saṃvattati, na ca labbhati saññāya— ‘evaṃ me saññā hotu, evaṃ me saññā mā ahosī’ti.
92. Saṅkhārā anattā. Saṅkhārā ca hidaṃ, bhikkhave, attā abhavissaṃsu, nayidaṃ saṅkhārā ābādhāya saṃvatteyyuṃ, labbhetha ca saṅkhāresu— ‘evaṃ me saṅkhārā hontu, evaṃ me saṅkhārā mā ahesun’ti. Yasmā ca kho, bhikkhave, saṅkhārā anattā, tasmā saṅkhārā ābādhāya saṃvattanti, na ca labbhati saṅkhāresu— ‘evaṃ me saṅkhārā hontu, evaṃ me saṅkhārā mā ahesun’ti.
93. Viññāṇaṃ anattā. Viññāṇañca hidaṃ, bhikkhave, attā abhavissa, nayidaṃ viññāṇaṃ ābādhāya saṃvatteyya, labbhetha ca viññāṇe— ‘evaṃ me viññāṇaṃ hotu, evaṃ me viññāṇaṃ mā ahosī’ti. Yasmā ca kho, bhikkhave, viññāṇaṃ anattā, tasmā viññāṇaṃ ābādhāya saṃvattati, na ca labbhati viññāṇe— ‘evaṃ me viññāṇaṃ hotu, evaṃ me viññāṇaṃ mā ahosī’ti.
(21.)
94. Taṃ kiṃ maññatha, bhikkhave, rūpaṃ niccaṃ vā aniccaṃ vā”ti? “Aniccaṃ, bhante”. “Yaṃ panāniccaṃ dukkhaṃ vā taṃ sukhaṃ vā”ti? “Dukkhaṃ, bhante”. “Yaṃ panāniccaṃ dukkhaṃ vipariṇāmadhammaṃ, kallaṃ nu taṃ samanupassituṃ— etaṃ mama, esohamasmi, eso me attā”ti? “No hetaṃ, bhante”.
95. “Vedanā niccā vā aniccā vā”ti? “Aniccā, bhante”. “Yaṃ panāniccaṃ dukkhaṃ vā taṃ sukhaṃ vā”ti? “Dukkhaṃ, bhante”. “Yaṃ panāniccaṃ dukkhaṃ vipariṇāmadhammaṃ, kallaṃ nu taṃ samanupassituṃ— etaṃ mama, esohamasmi, eso me attā”ti? “No hetaṃ, bhante”.
96. “Saññā niccā vā aniccā vā”ti? “Aniccā, bhante”. “Yaṃ panāniccaṃ dukkhaṃ vā taṃ sukhaṃ vā”ti? “Dukkhaṃ, bhante”. “Yaṃ panāniccaṃ dukkhaṃ vipariṇāmadhammaṃ, kallaṃ nu taṃ samanupassituṃ— etaṃ mama, esohamasmi, eso me attā”ti? “No hetaṃ, bhante”.
97. “Saṅkhārā niccā vā aniccā vā”ti? “Aniccā, bhante”. “Yaṃ panāniccaṃ dukkhaṃ vā taṃ sukhaṃ vā”ti? “Dukkhaṃ, bhante”. “Yaṃ panāniccaṃ dukkhaṃ vipariṇāmadhammaṃ, kallaṃ nu taṃ samanupassituṃ— etaṃ mama, esohamasmi, eso me attā”ti? “No hetaṃ, bhante”.
98. “Viññāṇaṃ niccaṃ vā aniccaṃ vā”ti? “Aniccaṃ, bhante”. “Yaṃ panāniccaṃ dukkhaṃ vā taṃ sukhaṃ vā”ti? “Dukkhaṃ, bhante”. “Yaṃ panāniccaṃ dukkhaṃ vipariṇāmadhammaṃ, kallaṃ nu taṃ samanupassituṃ— etaṃ mama, esohamasmi, eso me attā”ti? “No hetaṃ, bhante”.
(22.)
99. “Tasmātiha, bhikkhave, yaṃ kiñci rūpaṃ atītānāgatapaccuppannaṃ ajjhattaṃ vā bahiddhā vā oḷārikaṃ vā sukhumaṃ vā hīnaṃ vā paṇītaṃ vā yaṃ dūre santike vā, sabbaṃ rūpaṃ— netaṃ mama, nesohamasmi, na meso attāti— evametaṃ yathābhūtaṃ sammappaññāya daṭṭhabbaṃ.
100. Yā kāci vedanā atītānāgatapaccuppannā ajjhattaṃ vā bahiddhā vā oḷārikā vā sukhumā vā hīnā vā paṇītā vā yā dūre santike vā, sabbā vedanā— netaṃ mama, nesohamasmi, na meso attāti— evametaṃ yathābhūtaṃ sammappaññāya daṭṭhabbaṃ.
101. Yā kāci saññā atītānāgatapaccuppannā ajjhattaṃ vā bahiddhā vā oḷārikā vā sukhumā vā hīnā vā paṇītā vā yā dūre santike vā, sabbā saññā— netaṃ mama, nesohamasmi, na meso attāti— evametaṃ yathābhūtaṃ sammappaññāya daṭṭhabbaṃ.
102. Ye keci saṅkhārā atītānāgatapaccuppannā ajjhattaṃ vā bahiddhā vā oḷārikā vā sukhumā vā hīnā vā paṇītā vā ye dūre santike vā, sabbe saṅkhārā— netaṃ mama, nesohamasmi, na meso attāti— evametaṃ yathābhūtaṃ sammappaññāya daṭṭhabbaṃ.
103. Yaṃ kiñci viññāṇaṃ atītānāgatapaccuppannaṃ ajjhattaṃ vā bahiddhā vā oḷārikaṃ vā sukhumaṃ vā hīnaṃ vā paṇītaṃ vā yaṃ dūre santike vā, sabbaṃ viññāṇaṃ— netaṃ mama, nesohamasmi, na meso attāti— evametaṃ yathābhūtaṃ sammappaññāya daṭṭhabbaṃ.
(23.)
104. Evaṃ passaṃ, bhikkhave, sutavā ariyasāvako rūpasmimpi nibbindati, vedanāyapi nibbindati, saññāyapi nibbindati, saṅkhāresupi nibbindati, viññāṇasmimpi nibbindati; nibbindaṃ virajjati; virāgā vimuccati; vimuttasmiṃ vimuttamiti ñāṇaṃ hoti, ‘khīṇā jāti, vusitaṃ brahmacariyaṃ, kataṃ karaṇīyaṃ, nāparaṃ itthattāyā’ti pajānātī”ti.
(24.)
105. Idamavoca bhagavā. Attamanā pañcavaggiyā bhikkhū bhagavato bhāsitaṃ abhinandunti. Imasmiñca pana veyyākaraṇasmiṃ bhaññamāne pañcavaggiyānaṃ bhikkhūnaṃ anupādāya āsavehi cittāni vimucciṃsu. Tena kho pana samayena cha loke arahanto honti.
106. Pañcavaggiyakathā niṭṭhitā.
Paṭhamabhāṇavāro.
Summary
After realising his first two choices for teaching the Dhamma had passed away, the Buddha (Bhagavā) decided to teach the group of five ascetics who had previously attended him. Journeying to Bārāṇasī, he encountered Upaka, to whom he declared his supreme enlightenment and status as a teacherless Arahant. The five ascetics were initially skeptical of the Buddha, whom they perceived as having reverted to luxury, but he convinced them of his attainment. He then delivered his first discourse, “Setting the Wheel of Dhamma in Motion,” teaching them the Middle Path which avoids the extremes of sensual indulgence and self-mortification, and the Four Noble Truths: suffering, its origin in craving, its cessation, and the path to its cessation (the Noble Eightfold Path). Koṇḍañña was the first to gain the “Dhamma-eye,” understanding that whatever is subject to origination is subject to cessation, followed by the other four, all of whom were then ordained. Subsequently, the Buddha taught them the second discourse - the doctrine of anattā (not-self) in relation to the five aggregates (form, feeling, perception, mental formations, consciousness), leading to all five ascetics achieving liberation as Arahants.
Diagram
Deciding who to teach
sequenceDiagram participant B as Bhagavā note over B: reflects on whom to teach the Dhamma create participant D as devāta B-->>+D: Considers Āḷāra Kālāma (wise, experienced) D-->>B: "Passed away seven days ago." B-->>D: Considers Udaka Rāmaputta (wise, experienced) destroy D D->>B: "Passed away last night." B-->>B: Consides the group of five ascetics,<br>who had helped him previously. note over B: Realised the group is dwelling in Bārāṇasī at Isipatana in the Deer Park <br> and sets out on a journey towards Bārāṇasī.
Upaka
sequenceDiagram participant B as Bhagavā create participant U as Upaka the Ājīvaka B-->>U: Journeying on the high road <br>between Gayā and the Bodhi tree. note over U: Notices how radiant Bhagavā is U->>B: "For whose sake have you gone forth? <br> Who is your teacher? <br> Whose Dhamma do you profess?" activate U B->>U: "No teacher have I,<br>For I am an arahant,<br>I am a sammāsambuddha (perfectly self-awakened one)<br>Cooled am I, nibbuto (extinguished)<br>To set the Dhammacakka (Wheel of Dhamma) in motion." U->>B: "You must be an infinite victor." B->>U: "Victors have reached the destruction of āsavas (taints),<br>Therefore I am a victor." U->>B: "It may be so, āvuso." deactivate U note over U: Shaking his head, took a side road and departed destroy U
The Five Ascetics
sequenceDiagram participant B as Bhagavā participant B5 as the Five Ascetics B-->>B5: Arrival at Isipatana, Deer Park in Bārāṇasī note over B5: See Gotama approaching, <br>agree not to greet him formally<br/>(believing he reverted to luxury after abandoning austerities) B5-->>B: As Bhagavā nears, they break their agreement and serve him,<br>address Bhagavā by name and as 'āvuso' (friend) B->>B5: "Do not address the Tathāgata by name or 'āvuso'.<br/>The Tathāgata is an Arahant, a Sammāsambuddha.<br/>The Deathless (Amata) has been attained.<br>I will instruct, I will teach the Dhamma." loop 3 times B5->>B: "Even with severe austerity, you didn't attain superhuman states.<br/>How can you now, living in luxury,<br> claim such attainment?" B->>B5: "The Tathāgata is not given to luxury...<br>is an Arahant, a Sammāsambuddha. end B->>B5: "Do you recall me ever having spoken like this before?" B5->>B: "No indeed, bhante." B5->>B: Convinced, they listened, <br> gave ear, <br> and applied their minds to understanding note over B, B5: First Sermon: <br>Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta <br>(Setting the Dhamma Wheel in Motion)
The Middle Path (Majjhimā Paṭipadā)
journey The Middle Path: 5: Bhagavā Pursuit of Sensual Happiness: 1: others Pursuit of Self-Mortification: 1: others
timeline The Middle Path : Produces vision, : knowledge, : leads to calm, : direct knowledge (abhiññā), : enlightenment (sambodhi), : Nibbāna. Pursuit of Sensual Happiness : low, : vulgar, : worldly, : ignoble, : not conducive to welfare Pursuit of Self-Mortification : painful, : ignoble, : not conducive to welfare
The Noble Eightfold Path (Ariyo Aṭṭhaṅgiko Maggo)
mindmap root["Ariyo Aṭṭhaṅgiko Maggo"] R1["Right View (sammādiṭṭhi)"] R2["Right Resolve (sammāsaṅkappa)"] R3["Right Speech (sammāvācā)"] R4["Right Action (sammākammanta)"] R5["Right Livelihood (sammāājīva)"] R6["Right Effort (sammāvāyāma)"] R7["Right Mindfulness (sammāsati)"] R8["Right Concentration (sammāsamādhi)"]
The Four Noble Truths
timeline dukkha ariyasacca (Noble Truth of suffering) : Birth : aging : illness : death is dukkha : association with the unloved : separation from the loved : not getting what one wants : pañcupādānakkhandhā (five aggregates acting as fuel) dukkhasamudaya ariyasacca (Noble Truth of the origin of suffering) : taṇhā (craving) : leads to renewed existence : accompanied by delight and lust : relishing now here, now there : kāmataṇhā (craving for sensual pleasures) : bhavataṇhā (craving for existence) : vibhavataṇhā (craving for non-existence) dukkhanirodha ariyasacca (Noble Truth of the cessation of suffering) : remainderless : fading away : cessation : the giving up : the relinquishing : freedom : non-reliance on taṇhā dukkhanirodhagāminī paṭipadā ariyasacca (Noble Truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering) : sammādiṭṭhi : sammāsaṅkappa : sammāvācā : sammākammanta : sammāājīva : sammāvāyāma : sammāsati : sammāsamādhi
graph LR subgraph N[caturāriyasaccāni] N1[dukkha ariyasacca] N2[dukkhasamudaya ariyasacca] N3[dukkhanirodha ariyasacca] N4[dukkhanirodhagāminī paṭipadā ariyasacca] end subgraph Aspects P1-1[is to be fully understood] P1-2[has been fully understood] P1-3[dhammas not heard before] P2-1[is to be given up] P2-2[has been given up] P2-3[dhammas not heard before] P3-1[is to be personally experienced] P3-2[has been personally experienced] P3-3[dhammas not heard before] P4-1[is to be developed] P4-2[has been developed] P4-3[dhammas not heard before] end subgraph Arose direction TB R1["cakkhu <br> (Vision)"] R2["ñāṇa <br> (Knowledge)"] R3["paññā <br> (Wisdom)"] R4["vijjā <br> (Understanding)"] R5["āloka <br> (Light)"] end N1 -->|Phase 1| P1-1 N1 -->|Phase 2| P1-2 N1 -->|Phase 3| P1-3 N2 -->|Phase 1| P2-1 N2 -->|Phase 2| P2-2 N2 -->|Phase 3| P2-3 N3 -->|Phase 1| P3-1 N3 -->|Phase 2| P3-2 N3 -->|Phase 3| P3-3 N4 -->|Phase 1| P4-1 N4 -->|Phase 2| P4-2 N4 -->|Phase 3| P4-3 P1-3 & P2-3 & P3-3 & P4-3 --> R1 & R2 & R3 & R4 & R5
graph NT["caturāriyasaccāni<br>(4 Noble Truths)"] --> P3["tiparivaṭṭa<br>(3 Phases)"] --> A12["dvādasākāra<br>(12 aspects)"] --> A & B & C --> D["abhisambuddha anuttara sammāsambodhi<br>(woken up to perfect understanding)"] -->|surpassing| L --> O["*akuppā me vimutti, ayamantimā jāti, natthi dāni punabbhavo*<br>(Unshakeable is my liberation, this is the final birth, there is now no more future lives.)"] A["yathābhūta<br>(reality)"] B["ñāṇadassana<br>(total understanding)"] C["suvisuddha<br>(total purification)"] subgraph L["Loka (World)"] L1["devas"] L2["Māra"] L3["Brahmā"] L4["ascetics and brahmins"] L5["*pajā* (living beings)"] L6["*sadevamanussa* (kings and commoners)"] end
Koṇḍañña has understood
sequenceDiagram participant B as Bhagavā participant K as Koṇḍañña note over B, K: First Sermon: Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta activate B K->>B: "Whatever phenomena is subject to origination is completely subject to cessation." note over K: *viraja* (pure), <br> *vītamala* (stainless) <br> dhammacakkhu (understanding of the way things are) arose note over B, K: Sets Dhamma Wheel in motion<br>followed by deity proclamations<br> (see next diagram) B->>K: "Koṇḍañña has understood!" note over K: Koṇḍañña became known as Aññāsi Koṇḍañña <br>(Koṇḍañña Who Understood) note over K: diṭṭhadhamma (seen the Dhamma)<br>pattadhamma (attained the Dhamma)<br>viditadhammo (understood the Dhamma)<br>pariyogāḷhadhammo (deeply penetrated the Dhamma)<br>tiṇṇavicikiccha (overcome uncertainty)<br>vigatakathaṃkatha (free from doubt)<br>aparappaccaya satthusāsane (not relying on another teacher's instructions) K->>B: "May I receive the pabbajja (going forth) <br> and the upasampadā (higher ordination)?" destroy K B->>K: "Come, bhikkhu"<br>*svākkhāto dhammo, cara brahmacariyaṃ sammā dukkhassa antakiriyāya*<br>("the Dhamma is well-proclaimed, live the pure life of the complete ending of suffering.") create participant VB as Vappa and Bhaddiya B-->>VB: instructs and exhorts bhikkhus VB->>B: "Whatever phenomena is subject to origination is completely subject to cessation." note over VB: *viraja* (pure), <br> *vītamala* (stainless) <br> dhammacakkhu (understanding of the way things are) arose VB->>B: "May we receive the pabbajja (going forth) <br> and the upasampadā (higher ordination)?" destroy VB B->>VB: "Come, bhikkhavo"<br>*svākkhāto dhammo, cara brahmacariyaṃ sammā dukkhassa antakiriyāya*<br>("the Dhamma is well-proclaimed, live the pure life of the complete ending of suffering.") note over B: being brought food from 3 bhikkhus,<br>group of 6 lives on food create participant MA as Mahānāma and Assaji B-->>MA: instructs and exhorts bhikkhus MA->>B: "Whatever phenomena is subject to origination is completely subject to cessation." note over MA: *viraja* (pure), <br> *vītamala* (stainless) <br> dhammacakkhu (understanding of the way things are) arose MA->>B: "May we receive the pabbajja (going forth) <br> and the upasampadā (higher ordination)?" destroy MA B->>MA: "Come, bhikkhavo"<br>*svākkhāto dhammo, cara brahmacariyaṃ sammā dukkhassa antakiriyāya*<br>("the Dhamma is well-proclaimed, live the pure life of the complete ending of suffering.") note over B: Second Sermon:<br>Anattalakkhaṇa Sutta <br>(Discourse on the Characteristic of Not-Self) deactivate B
Anattalakkhaṇa Sutta
--- title: "Second Sermon: Anattalakkhaṇa Sutta (Discourse on the Characteristic of Not-Self)" --- graph R["*Rūpa*<br>(shape/form/matter/body)"] V["*Vedanā*<br>(feeling)"] S["*Saññā*<br>(perception)"] S2["*Saṅkhārā*<br>(mental formations/volitional activities)"] V2["*Viññāṇa*<br>(consciousness)"] D{"Is X *atta*<br>(eternal self)?"} A["*ābādhāya*<br>(affliction)"] L["Can be obtained"] L1["*evaṃ me rūpaṃ hotu*<br>('May my X be thus')"] L2["*evaṃ me rūpaṃ mā ahosi*<br>('May my X not be thus')"] R & V & S & S2 & V2 --> D -->|yes| L --> L1 & L2 D -->|no| A D2{"Is X *nicca*<br>(permanent)?"} Du["*dukkha*<br>(suffering)"] VP["*vipariṇāmadhamma*<br>(subject to change)"] E1["*etaṃ mama*<br>(This is mine)>"] E2["*esohamasmi*<br>(This I am)>"] E3["*eso me atta*<br>(This is my self)>"] R & V & S & S2 & V2 --> D2 -->|yes| E1 --> E2 --> E3 D2 -->|no| Du --> VP
graph R["*Rūpa*<br>(shape/form/matter/body)"] V["*Vedanā*<br>(feeling)"] S["*Saññā*<br>(perception)"] S2["*Saṅkhārā*<br>(mental formations/volitional activities)"] V2["*Viññāṇa*<br>(consciousness)"] PFP["*atītānāgatapaccuppanna*<br>(past, future, or present)"] IE["*ajjhatta* (internal)<br>*bahiddha* (external)"] CF["*oḷārika* (coarse)<br>*sukhuma* (fine)"] FN["dūra* (far)<br>*santika* (near)"] R & V & S & S2 & V2 --> PFP & IE & CF & FN --> Y["*yathābhūta*<br>(in reality)"] & SP["*sammappaññā*<br>(with correct understanding)"] --> E1 & E2 & E3 E1["*netaṃ mama*<br>(This is not mine)>"] E2["*nesohamasmi*<br>(This I am not)>"] E3["*na meso atta*<br>(This is not my self)>"]
graph A["*ariyasāvaka* (noble disciples)"] --> P["passanta (understanding)"] --> A0["sutavant (having heard)"] --> A1 subgraph A1["nibbindati (give up)"] R["*rūpa*<br>(shape/form/matter/body)"] V["*vedanā*<br>(feeling)"] S["*saññā*<br>(perception)"] S2["*saṅkhārā*<br>(mental formations/volitional activities)"] V2["*viññāṇa*<br>(consciousness)"] end A1 --> A2["virajjati (become detached)"] --> A3["vimuccati (become liberated)"] --> A4["ñāṇa (have knowledge and understanding)"] --> A5["pajānāti (know clearly)"] --> A6["*khīṇā jāti, vusitaṃ brahmacariyaṃ, kataṃ karaṇīyaṃ, nāparaṃ itthattāya*<br>((Re-)Birth is finished, the pure life is lived, what had to be done is done, there is nothing further for this present state of existence.)"]
Text
(10.)
53. Then this occurred to the Bhagavā: “To whom indeed should I first teach the dhamma (teaching)? Who will understand this dhamma quickly?” Then this occurred to the Bhagavā: “This Āḷāra Kālāma is wise, experienced, intelligent, for a long time of a nature with little dust; what if I were to teach the dhamma first to Āḷāra Kālāma, he will understand this dhamma quickly.” Then an invisible deity informed the Bhagavā: “Bhante, Āḷāra Kālāma passed away seven days ago.” And to the Bhagavā also knowledge arose: “Āḷāra Kālāma passed away seven days ago.” Then this occurred to the Bhagavā: “Āḷāra Kālāma was of great understanding; if indeed he had heard this dhamma, he would have understood it quickly.”
54. Then this occurred to the Bhagavā: “To whom indeed should I first teach the dhamma? Who will understand this dhamma quickly?” Then this occurred to the Bhagavā: “This Udaka Rāmaputta is wise, experienced, intelligent, for a long time of a nature with little dust; what if I were to teach the dhamma first to Udaka Rāmaputta, he will understand this dhamma quickly.” Then an invisible deity informed the Bhagavā: “Bhante, Udaka Rāmaputta passed away last night.” And to the Bhagavā also knowledge arose: “Udaka Rāmaputta passed away last night.” Then this occurred to the Bhagavā: “Udaka Rāmaputta was of great understanding; if indeed he had heard this dhamma, he would have understood it quickly.”
55. Then this occurred to the Bhagavā: “To whom indeed should I first teach the dhamma? Who will understand this dhamma quickly?” Then this occurred to the Bhagavā: “The group of five bhikkhū (ascetics) were very helpful to me, who attended me when I was striving in exertion; what if I were to teach the dhamma first to the group of five bhikkhū.” Then this occurred to the Bhagavā: “Where now are the group of five bhikkhū dwelling?” The Bhagavā saw with clear divine vision, surpassing normal human ability, the group of five bhikkhū dwelling in Bārāṇasī at Isipatana in the Deer Park. Then the Bhagavā, having dwelt in Uruvelā as long as he wished, set out on a journey towards Bārāṇasī.
(11.)
56. Upaka the Ājīvaka saw the Bhagavā journeying on the high road between Gayā and the Bodhi tree, and having seen the Bhagavā, he said this: “Your faculties, āvuso, are very clear, your skin-complexion is pure and bright. For whose sake, āvuso, have you gone forth? Or who is your teacher? Or whose dhamma do you profess?” When this was said, the Bhagavā addressed Upaka the Ājīvaka in verses:
57. “All-conquering, all-knowing am I,
In all dhammas (phenomena) undefiled;
All-abandoning, liberated in the destruction of taṇhā (craving),
Having known for myself, whom should I point to?
58. No teacher have I,
One like me is not found;
In the world with its devas,
There is no one to rival me.
59. For I am an arahant (worthy one) in the world,
I am the teacher unexcelled;
Alone I am a sammāsambuddha (perfectly self-awakened one),
Cooled am I, nibbuto (extinguished).
60. To set the Dhammacakka (Wheel of Dhamma) in motion,
I go to the city of Kāsī;
In a world become blind,
I shall beat the drum of the amata (deathless).”
61. “As you, āvuso, declare, you must be an infinite victor.”
62. “Victors indeed are those like me,
Who have reached the destruction of āsavas (taints);
Conquered by me are evil dhammas,
Therefore, Upaka, I am a victor.”
63. When this was said, Upaka the Ājīvaka, saying, “It may be so, āvuso,” shaking his head, took a side road and departed.
(12.)
64. Then the Bhagavā, journeying by stages, approached Bārāṇasī, Isipatana, the Deer Park, where the group of five bhikkhū were. The group of five bhikkhū saw the Bhagavā coming from afar; having seen him, they made an agreement among themselves: “āvuso, this ascetic Gotama is coming, who is given to luxury, has strayed from striving, and has reverted to luxury. He should not be greeted, nor stood up for, nor should his bowl and robe be received; however, a seat should be prepared, if he wishes, he will sit down.” But as the Bhagavā approached the group of five bhikkhū, the group of five bhikkhū were not able to abide by their own agreement. Not abiding by it, they went to meet the Bhagavā: one took his bowl and robe, one prepared a seat, one brought water for the feet, one a footstool, one a foot-towel. The Bhagavā sat down on the prepared seat; having sat down, the Bhagavā washed his feet. And they addressed the Bhagavā by name and with the term ‘āvuso’.
65. When this was said, the Bhagavā said this to the group of five bhikkhū: “Do not, bhikkhave, address the Tathāgata by name and with the term ‘āvuso’. The Tathāgata, bhikkhave, is an Arahant, a sammāsambuddha. Give ear, bhikkhave, the amata (deathless) has been attained, I will instruct, I will teach the dhamma. Practicing according to the instruction, you will soon — for the sake of which clansmen rightly go forth from home into homelessness, that unsurpassed—culmination of the brahmacariya (disciplined life), realise it for yourselves by abhiññā (direct knowledge) in this very life, and dwell having attained it.” When this was said, the group of five bhikkhū said this to the Bhagavā: “Even with that conduct, āvuso Gotama, with that practice, with that difficult austerity, you did not attain any superhuman state, a distinction in knowledge and vision worthy of the noble ones; how then now, being given to luxury, having strayed from striving, having reverted to luxury, will you attain any superhuman state, a distinction in knowledge and vision worthy of the noble ones?” When this was said, the Bhagavā said this to the group of five bhikkhū: “No, bhikkhave, the Tathāgata is not given to luxury, has not strayed from striving, has not reverted to luxury; the Tathāgata, bhikkhave, is an Arahant, a sammāsambuddha. Give ear, bhikkhave, the amata has been attained, I will instruct, I will teach the dhamma. Practicing according to the instruction, you will soon — for the sake of which clansmen rightly go forth from home into homelessness, that unsurpassed—culmination of the brahmacariya, realize it for yourselves by abhiññā in this very life, and dwell having attained it.”
66. For a second time, the group of five bhikkhū said this to the Bhagavā: “Even with that conduct, āvuso Gotama, with that practice, with that difficult austerity, you did not attain any superhuman state, a distinction in knowledge and vision worthy of the noble ones; how then now, being given to luxury, having strayed from striving, having reverted to luxury, will you attain any superhuman state, a distinction in knowledge and vision worthy of the noble ones?” For a second time, the Bhagavā said this to the group of five bhikkhū: “No, bhikkhave, the Tathāgata is not given to luxury, has not strayed from striving, has not reverted to luxury; the Tathāgata, bhikkhave, is an Arahant, a sammāsambuddha. Give ear, bhikkhave, the amata has been attained, I will instruct, I will teach the dhamma. Practicing according to the instruction, you will soon — for the sake of which clansmen rightly go forth from home into homelessness, that unsurpassed—culmination of the brahmacariya, realise it for yourselves by abhiññā in this very life, and dwell having attained it.” For a third time, the group of five bhikkhū said this to the Bhagavā: “Even with that conduct, āvuso Gotama, with that practice, with that difficult austerity, you did not attain any superhuman state, a distinction in knowledge and vision worthy of the noble ones; how then now, being given to luxury, having strayed from striving, having reverted to luxury, will you attain any superhuman state, a distinction in knowledge and vision worthy of the noble ones?”
67. When this was said, the Bhagavā said this to the group of five bhikkhū: “Do you, bhikkhave, recall me ever having spoken like this before?” “No indeed, bhante.” “The Tathāgata, bhikkhave, is an Arahant, a sammāsambuddha. Give ear, bhikkhave, the amata has been attained, I will instruct, I will teach the dhamma. Practicing according to the instruction, you will soon — for the sake of which clansmen rightly go forth from home into homelessness, that unsurpassed—culmination of the brahmacariya, realize it for yourselves by abhiññā in this very life, and dwell having attained it.” The Bhagavā was able to convince the group of five bhikkhū. Then the group of five bhikkhū listened to the Bhagavā, gave ear, and applied their minds to understanding.
(13.)
68. Then the Bhagavā addressed the group of five bhikkhū:
69. “These two extremes, bhikkhave, should not be cultivated by one who has gone forth. What two? That which is this pursuit of sensual happiness in sensual pleasures, which is low, vulgar, worldly, ignoble, not conducive to welfare; and that which is this pursuit of self-mortification, which is painful, ignoble, not conducive to welfare. Without veering towards either of these two extremes, bhikkhave, the majjhimā paṭipadā (middle path) has been abhisambuddha (fully awakened) by the Tathāgata, which produces vision, produces knowledge, leads to calm, to abhiññā, to sambodhi (enlightenment), to nibbāna (extinguishment).
70. And what, bhikkhave, is that majjhimā paṭipadā abhisambuddha by the Tathāgata, which produces vision, produces knowledge, leads to calm, to abhiññā, to sambodhi, to nibbāna? It is this very ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo (Noble Eightfold Path), that is to say: sammādiṭṭhi (right view), sammāsaṅkappa (right resolve), sammāvācā (right speech), sammākammanta (right action), sammāājīva (right livelihood), sammāvāyāma (right effort), sammāsati (right awareness), sammāsamādhi (right focus). This, bhikkhave, is that majjhimā paṭipadā abhisambuddha by the Tathāgata, which produces vision, produces knowledge, leads to calm, to abhiññā, to sambodhi, to nibbāna.
(14.)
71. Now this, bhikkhave, is the dukkha ariyasacca (Noble Truth of suffering). Birth is dukkha (suffering), aging is dukkha, illness is dukkha, death is dukkha, association with the unloved is dukkha, separation from the loved is dukkha, not getting what one wants is dukkha. In short, the pañcupādānakkhandhā (five collections acting as a fuel) are dukkha.
72. Now this, bhikkhave, is the dukkhasamudaya ariyasacca (Noble Truth of the origin of suffering): it is this taṇhā (craving) which leads to renewed existence, accompanied by delight and lust, relishing now here, now there; that is to say, kāmataṇhā (craving for sensual pleasures), bhavataṇhā (craving for existence), vibhavataṇhā (craving for non-existence).
73. Now this, bhikkhave, is the dukkhanirodha ariyasacca (Noble Truth of the cessation of suffering): it is the remainderless fading away and cessation of that same taṇhā, the giving up, the relinquishing of it, freedom from it, non-reliance on it.
74. Now this, bhikkhave, is the dukkhanirodhagāminī paṭipadā ariyasacca (Noble Truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering): it is this very ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo, that is to say: sammādiṭṭhi, sammāsaṅkappa, sammāvācā, sammākammanta, sammāājīva, sammāvāyāma, sammāsati, sammāsamādhi.
(15.)
75. ‘This is the dukkha ariyasacca’: thus, bhikkhave, concerning dhammas not heard before, cakkhuṃ (insight) arose in me, ñāṇaṃ (knowledge) arose, paññā (wisdom) arose, vijjā (understanding) arose, āloko (light) arose. ‘This dukkha ariyasacca should be pariññeyyanti (fully understood)’: thus, bhikkhave, concerning dhammas not heard before, insight arose in me, knowledge arose, wisdom arose, understanding arose, light arose. ‘This dukkha ariyasacca has been fully understood’: thus, bhikkhave, concerning dhammas not heard before, insight arose in me, knowledge arose, wisdom arose, understanding arose, light arose.
76. ‘This is the dukkhasamudaya ariyasacca’: thus, bhikkhave, concerning dhammas not heard before, insight arose in me, knowledge arose, wisdom arose, understanding arose, light arose. ‘This dukkhasamudaya ariyasacca should be pahātabbanti (given up)’: thus, bhikkhave, concerning dhammas not heard before, insight arose in me, knowledge arose, wisdom arose, understanding arose, light arose. ‘This dukkhasamudaya ariyasacca has been abandoned’: thus, bhikkhave, concerning dhammas not heard before, insight arose in me, knowledge arose, wisdom arose, understanding arose, light arose.
77. ‘This is the dukkhanirodha ariyasacca’: thus, bhikkhave, concerning dhammas not heard before, insight arose in me, knowledge arose, wisdom arose, understanding arose, light arose. ‘This dukkhanirodha ariyasacca should be be sacchikātabbanti (personally experienced)’: thus, bhikkhave, concerning dhammas not heard before, insight arose in me, knowledge arose, wisdom arose, understanding arose, light arose. ‘This dukkhanirodha ariyasacca has been personally experienced’: thus, bhikkhave, concerning dhammas not heard before, insight arose in me, knowledge arose, wisdom arose, understanding arose, light arose.
78. ‘This is the dukkhanirodhagāminī paṭipadā ariyasacca’: thus, bhikkhave, insight concerning dhammas not heard before arose in me, knowledge arose, wisdom arose, understanding arose, light arose. ‘This dukkhanirodhagāminī paṭipadā ariyasacca should be bhāvetabbanti (developed)’: thus, bhikkhave, concerning dhammas not heard before, insight arose in me, knowledge arose, wisdom arose, understanding arose, light arose. ‘This dukkhanirodhagāminī paṭipadā ariyasacca has been developed’: thus, bhikkhave, concerning dhammas not heard before, insight arose in me, knowledge arose, wisdom arose, understanding arose, light arose.
(16.)
79. And as long as, bhikkhave, I did not have yathābhūta (in reality) ñāṇadassana (total understanding) and suvisuddha (total purification) in these four noble truths with tiparivaṭṭa (three phases) and dvādasākāra (twelve aspects), then, bhikkhave, I did not claim to have abhisambuddha anuttara sammāsambodhi (woken up to perfect understanding) in this world having devas, Māra, Brahmā, ascetics and brahmins, pajā (living beings), sadevamanussa (kings and commoners).
80. But when, bhikkhave, I had yathābhūta (in reality) ñāṇadassana (total understanding) and suvisuddha (total purification) in these four noble truths with tiparivaṭṭa (three phases) and dvādasākāra (twelve aspects), then, bhikkhave, I claimed to have abhisambuddha anuttara sammāsambodhi (woken up to perfect understanding unsurpassed by anything) in this world having devas, Māra, Brahmā, ascetics and brahmins, pajā (living beings), sadevamanussa (kings and commoners). And from my knowledge, the insight arose: akuppā me vimutti, ayamantimā jāti, natthi dāni punabbhavo (“Unshakeable is my liberation, this is the final birth, there is now no more future lives.”) This the Bhagavā said, and the group of five bhikkhū, delighted, rejoiced in the Bhagavā’s words.
81. And while this detailed exposition was being spoken, there arose in āyasmant Koṇḍañña the viraja (pure), vītamala (stainless) dhammacakkhu (understanding of the way things are): yaṃ kiñci samudayadhammaṃ sabbaṃ taṃ nirodhadhamman (“Whatever phenomena is subject to origination is completely subject to cessation.”)
(17.)
82. And when the Dhammacakka (Dhamma wheel) had been set in motion by the Bhagavā, bhummā devā (the earth-dwelling devas) raised a cry: “This unsurpassed Dhammacakka has been set in motion by the Bhagavā in Bārāṇasī, at Isipatana in the Deer Park, which cannot be stopped by any ascetic or brahmin or deva or Māra or Brahmā or by anyone in the world.” Hearing the cry of the earth-dwelling devas, the Cātumahārājikā devas raised a cry. Hearing the cry of the Cātumahārājikā devas, the Tāvatiṃsa devas raised a cry. Hearing the cry of the Tāvatiṃsa devas, the Yāma devas raised a cry. Hearing the cry of the Yāma devas, the Tusita devas raised a cry. Hearing the cry of the Tusita devas, the Nimmānaratī devas raised a cry. Hearing the cry of the Nimmānaratī devas, the Paranimmitavasavattī devas raised a cry. Hearing the cry of the Paranimmitavasavattī devas, the Brahmakāyika devas raised a cry: “This unsurpassed Dhammacakka has been set in motion by the Bhagavā in Bārāṇasī, at Isipatana in the Deer Park, which cannot be stopped by any ascetic or brahmin or deva or Māra or Brahmā or by anyone in the world.”
83. Thus indeed, in that moment, in that instant, in that flash, the sound arose up to brahmalokā (the Brahma world). And this dasasahassilokadhātu (ten thousand-fold world system) trembled, trembled, quaked; and an immeasurable and excellent obhāso (radiance) appeared in the world, surpassing the divine majesty of the deities.
84. Then the Bhagavā uttered this inspired utterance: “Indeed, bho Koṇḍañña has understood! Indeed, bho Koṇḍañña has understood!” Thus it was that āyasmato Koṇḍañña came to be known as Aññāsi Koṇḍañña (Koṇḍañña Who Understood).
(18.)
85. Then āyasmā Aññāsi Koṇḍañña, diṭṭhadhamma (who has seen the Dhamma), pattadhamma (attained the Dhamma), viditadhammo (understood the Dhamma), pariyogāḷhadhammo (deeply penetrated the Dhamma), tiṇṇavicikiccha (overcome uncertainty), vigatakathaṃkatha (free from doubt), aparappaccaya satthusāsane (not relying on another teacher’s instructions), said this to the Bhagavā: “May I, bhante, receive the pabbajja (going forth) in the Bhagavā’s presence, may I receive the upasampadā (higher ordination)?” “Come, bhikkhu,” the Bhagavā said, svākkhāto dhammo, cara brahmacariyaṃ sammā dukkhassa antakiriyāya (“the Dhamma is well-proclaimed, live the optimal life of the complete ending of suffering.”) That itself was the upasampadā for that āyasmant.
(19.)
86. Then the Bhagavā instructed and exhorted the remaining bhikkhū with a Dhamma talk. Then, while āyasmant Vappa and āyasmant Bhaddiya were being instructed and exhorted by the Bhagavā with a Dhamma talk, the dust-free, stainless dhammacakkhu arose in them: “Whatever is subject to origination is all subject to cessation.” They, diṭṭhadhamma (who has seen the Dhamma), pattadhamma (attained the Dhamma), viditadhammo (understood the Dhamma), pariyogāḷhadhammo (deeply penetrated the Dhamma), tiṇṇavicikiccha (overcome uncertainty), vigatakathaṃkatha (free from doubt), aparappaccaya satthusāsane (not relying on another teacher’s instructions), said this to the Bhagavā: “May we, Bhante, receive the pabbajja in the Bhagavā’s presence, may we receive the upasampadā?” “Come, bhikkhavo,” the Bhagavā said, “the Dhamma is well-proclaimed, live the brahmacariya for the complete ending of dukkha (suffering).” That itself was the upasampadā for those āyasmants.
87. Then the Bhagavā, being brought food, instructed and exhorted the remaining bhikkhū with a Dhamma talk. What the three bhikkhū bring from their alms round, with that the group of six sustain themselves. Then, while āyasmant Mahānāma and āyasmant Assaji were being instructed and exhorted by the Bhagavā with a Dhamma talk, the dust-free, stainless dhammacakkhu arose in them: “Whatever is subject to origination is all subject to cessation.” They, diṭṭhadhamma (who has seen the Dhamma), pattadhamma (attained the Dhamma), viditadhammo (understood the Dhamma), pariyogāḷhadhammo (deeply penetrated the Dhamma), tiṇṇavicikiccha (overcome uncertainty), vigatakathaṃkatha (free from doubt), aparappaccaya satthusāsane (not relying on another teacher’s instructions), said this to the Bhagavā: “May we, Bhante, receive the pabbajja in the Bhagavā’s presence, may we receive the upasampadā?” “Come, bhikkhavo,” the Bhagavā said, “the Dhamma is well-proclaimed, live the brahmacariya for the complete ending of dukkha (suffering).” That itself was the upasampadā for those āyasmants.
(20.)
88. Then the Bhagavā addressed the group of five bhikkhū:
89. Rūpa (shape/form/matter/body), bhikkhave, is anatta (not-self). And indeed here, bhikkhave, if rūpa is atta (conception of an everlasting permanent self), this rūpa would not lead to ābādhāya (affliction), and rūpa can be obtained: evaṃ me rūpaṃ hotu, evaṃ me rūpaṃ mā ahosī (‘May my form be thus, may my form not be thus.’) And because indeed, bhikkhave, rūpa is anatta (not-self), therefore rūpa leads to affliction, and it cannot be obtained: May my form be thus, may my form not be thus.’
90. Vedanā (feeling), bhikkhave, is anatta (not-self). And indeed here, bhikkhave, if vedanā is atta, this vedanā would not lead to affliction, and vedanā can be obtained: ‘May my vedanā be thus, may my vedanā not be thus.’ And because indeed, bhikkhave, vedanā is anatta (not-self), therefore vedanā leads to affliction, and it cannot be obtained: May my feelings be thus, may my feelings not be thus.’
91. Saññā (perception), bhikkhave, is anatta (not-self). And indeed here, bhikkhave, if saññā is atta, this saññā would not lead to affliction, and saññā can be obtained: ‘May my saññā be thus, may my saññā not be thus.’ And because indeed, bhikkhave, saññā is anatta (not-self), therefore saññā leads to affliction, and it cannot be obtained: May my saññā be thus, may my saññā not be thus.’
92. Saṅkhārā (mental formations/volitional activities), bhikkhave, is anatta (not-self). And indeed here, bhikkhave, if saṅkhārā is atta, this saṅkhārā would not lead to affliction, and saṅkhārā can be obtained: ‘May my saṅkhārā be thus, may my saṅkhārā not be thus.’ And because indeed, bhikkhave, saṅkhārā is anatta (not-self), therefore saṅkhārā leads to affliction, and it cannot be obtained: May my saṅkhārā be thus, may my saṅkhārā not be thus.’
93. Viññāṇa (consciousness), bhikkhave, is anatta (not-self). And indeed here, bhikkhave, if viññāṇa is atta, this viññāṇa would not lead to affliction, and viññāṇa can be obtained: ‘May my viññāṇa be thus, may my viññāṇa not be thus.’ And because indeed, bhikkhave, viññāṇa is anatta (not-self), therefore viññāṇa leads to affliction, and it cannot be obtained: May my viññāṇa be thus, may my viññāṇa not be thus.’
(21.)
94. “Bhikkhave, what do you consider: is rūpa nicca (permanent) or anicca (impermanent)?” “Anicca, bhante.” “Now, is that which is impermanent dukkha (suffering) or sukha (happiness)?” “Dukkha, bhante.” “Now, is it proper to regard that which is anicca, dukkha, and vipariṇāmadhamma (subject to change), as: etaṃ mama, esohamasmi, eso me atta (‘This is mine, this I am, this is my attā (self)’)?” “Of course not, bhante.”
95. “Bhikkhave, what do you consider: is vedanā permanent or impermanent?” “Impermanent, bhante.” “Now, is that which is impermanent dissatisfaction or satisfaction ?” “Dissatisfaction, bhante.” “Now, is it proper to regard that which is impermanent, dissatisfying, and subject to change, as: ‘This is mine, this I am, this is my attā (self)’?” “Of course not, bhante.”
96. “Bhikkhave, what do you consider: is saññā permanent or impermanent?” “Impermanent, bhante.” “Now, is that which is impermanent dissatisfaction or satisfaction ?” “Dissatisfaction, bhante.” “Now, is it proper to regard that which is impermanent, dissatisfying, and subject to change, as: ‘This is mine, this I am, this is my attā (self)’?” “Of course not, bhante.”
97. “Bhikkhave, what do you consider: is saṅkhārā permanent or impermanent?” “Impermanent, bhante.” “Now, is that which is impermanent dissatisfaction or satisfaction ?” “Dissatisfaction, bhante.” “Now, is it proper to regard that which is impermanent, dissatisfying, and subject to change, as: ‘This is mine, this I am, this is my attā (self)’?” “Of course not, bhante.”
98. “Bhikkhave, what do you consider: is viññāṇa permanent or impermanent?” “Impermanent, bhante.” “Now, is that which is impermanent dissatisfaction or satisfaction ?” “Dissatisfaction, bhante.” “Now, is it proper to regard that which is impermanent, dissatisfying, and subject to change, as: ‘This is mine, this I am, this is my attā (self)’?” “Of course not, bhante.”
(22.)
99. “Therefore, bhikkhave, whatever rūpa there is, atītānāgatapaccuppanna (past, future, or present), ajjhatta (internal) or bahiddha (external), oḷārika (coarse) or sukhuma (fine), hīna (inferior) or paṇīta (superior), dūra (far) or santika (near), all rūpa daṭṭhabba (should be regarded as) yathābhūta (in reality), sammappaññā (with correct understanding) thus: netaṃ mama, nesohamasmi, na meso atta (‘This is not mine, this I am not, this is not my attā.’)
100. Whatever vedanā there is, past, future, or present, internal or external, coarse or fine, inferior or superior, far or near, all vedanā should be seen as it really is, with correct understand, thus: ‘This is not mine, this I am not, this is not my attā.’
101. Whatever saññā there is, past, future, or present, internal or external, coarse or fine, inferior or superior, far or near, all saññā should be seen as it really is, with correct understand, thus: ‘This is not mine, this I am not, this is not my attā.’
102. Whatever saṅkhārā there is, past, future, or present, internal or external, coarse or fine, inferior or superior, far or near, all saṅkhārā should be seen as it really is, with correct understand, thus: ‘This is not mine, this I am not, this is not my attā.’
103. Whatever viññāṇa there is, past, future, or present, internal or external, coarse or fine, inferior or superior, far or near, all viññāṇa should be seen as it really is, with correct understand, thus: ‘This is not mine, this I am not, this is not my attā.’
(23.)
104. Thus understanding, bhikkhave, sutavā (having heard), the ariyasāvaka (noble disciples) nibbindati (give up) rūpa, vedanā, saññā, saṅkhārā, and viññāṇa; from giving up they virajjati (become detached), being detached they vimuccati (become liberated); through liberation, they have ñāṇa (knowledge and understanding) of liberation; they pajānāti (know clearly): khīṇā jāti, vusitaṃ brahmacariyaṃ, kataṃ karaṇīyaṃ, nāparaṃ itthattāya (“(Re-)Birth is finished, the pure life is lived, what had to be done is done, there is nothing further for this present state of existence.”)
(24.)
105. The Bhagavā said this. Attamana (with independent minds), the group of five bhikkhus abhinandi (approved of) the Buddha’s statement. And moreover, when this veyyākaraṇa (detailed exposition) was being spoken, the citta (minds) of the five bhikkhus, anupādāya āsavehi (not grasping the defilements) vimucci (became liberated). Then, there were six arahants (worthy ones) in the world.
106. The Story of the Group of Five is finished.
First Recitation Section.
Commentary
The first two sermons to the group of five represent the core of the Buddha’s initial teaching, and in this account the teaching was sufficient to result in liberation for all five.
Initially, his internal monologue reflects a rational assessment of potential recipients for his dhamma (teaching), based on their perceived intellectual acuity and experiential readiness. The “invisible deity” and subsequent “knowledge” arising can be understood rationally as moments of intuitive insight or the crystallisation of information, experienced as an external confirmation but rooted in his own cognitive processes.
His encounter with Upaka showcases the Bhagavā’s profound conviction in his self-achieved, unique understanding. His claims of being “all-conquering” and “all-knowing” refer to a mastery over his own experience and a comprehensive insight into the nature of dhammas (phenomena as experienced), rather than objective omniscience in a metaphysical sense. He describes a state of liberation achieved through direct, personal investigation (“Having known for myself”), a core tenet of phenomenological inquiry.
Upaka, despite being initially interested and receptive, dismisses the Bhagavā for his seemingly arrogant and exalted claims of his achievements. This was a valuable lesson for the Bhagavā - he needed to temper and adjust his elocution style, otherwise he risks alienating potential followers. Later on the Bhagavā adopts an improved approach which brings him great success in educating Yasa, his family and friends, the Bhaddavaggiya group and ultimately King Seniya Bimbisāra.
The initial skepticism of the five ascetics is a rational response based on their prior observation of his ascetic practices. Their eventual persuasion hinges not on supernatural displays, but on the perceived authenticity of his transformed state and the compelling nature of his new experiential framework. The Bhagavā’s argument rests on the observable change in his demeanour and the unprecedented nature of his current assertions. The Buddha has learnt from his mistake in his encounter with Upaka, but is still adjusting and tempering his teaching style.
The core teaching introduced, the “Middle Path,” is a principle derived from direct experience: avoiding the extremes of sensual indulgence and self-mortification, both of which are found to be unproductive for achieving clarity and insight into the nature of experience. It leads to “vision” and “knowledge” — direct, experiential understanding.
The Four Noble Truths are presented as a structured analysis of lived experience:
Dukkha(suffering/unsatisfactoriness): A phenomenological description of the inherent stress and unsatisfactoriness within conditioned existence, observable in birth, aging, illness, death, and the frustration of desires. The “five aggregates acting as a fuel” (form, feeling, perception, mental formations, consciousness) are identified as the locus of this experienceddukkha.Samudaya(origin ofdukkha): The identification oftaṇhā(craving/thirst) as the psychological mechanism, the experiential driver, behinddukkha. This is an observable pattern of attachment and aversion within conscious experience.Nirodha(cessation ofdukkha): The experiential possibility ofdukkhaending through the cessation of its cause,taṇhā. Although this could point to a transformed state of consciousness, I prefer to describe it as a disposition, a framing of the conscious and the subconscious to instinctively avoid generating mental constructions based ontaṇhāthat would inevitably lead todukkha.Magga(path to cessation): The Noble Eightfold Path, a practical training in optimal conduct, mental discipline, and wisdom, designed to bring about this cessation by directly altering how one engages with and understands one’s own experience.
Some scholars have speculated that the Four Noble Truths are a late invention, a synthesis and simplification of dependent origination into a framework reminiscent of a medical diagnosis and cure. Clues that the Noble Truth may have been a later synthesis reformulated as the first discourse include the presence of various anomalies and anachronisms embedded within the text. For example, the 5 collections (khandhas) are mentioned as part of the the first noble truth, yet are not introduced and explained until the second sermon. The five ascetics should have been referred to as samaṇa (recluses or renunciants) rather than bhikkhu, as the saṅgha has not been formalised yet. Thirdly, the introduction of the proclamations of the various levels of deities seem fanciful and potentially inserted at a late stage when the Buddha has been reified and his teachings elevated to a religious doctrine.
For example, (Bronkhorst, 2009) comments that ”… in some versions of the first sermon — probably the older ones — the Four Noble Truths or other forms of liberating knowledge are not mentioned at all.” He also adds that the three phases and 12 aspects are “probably later additions.” (Rhys Davids, 1935) points out that the four noble truths are absent from the Fours of the Añguttara-nikāya.
(Anderson, 2001) concludes that “the Ariyapariyesana-sutta shows that certain redactors of the canon conceived of the Buddha’s act of teaching without the four noble truths” and ”… the four noble truths emerged into the canonical tradition at a particular point and slowly became recognized as the first teaching of the Buddha … [being] a doctrine that came to be identified as the central teaching of the Buddha by the time of the commentaries”.
However, (Anālayo, 2012) argues against the theory that the Four Noble Truths are a late addition, proposing instead that the shorter texts are intentional extracts from a longer, multi-part discourse, and that the Mūlasarvāstivāda and Sarvāstivāda traditions considered the teaching on the “three turnings” to be the central element that set the wheel of Dharma in motion.
(Gombrich, 2009) speculates that ”… there was an earlier, probably shorter, version, which contained the gist of the present version; and that the entire text rested on a memory in the Sangha, quite likely buttressed by the Buddha while he was still alive, that those were the topics he talked about on that occasion.”
The Bhagavā’s repeated emphasis on “vision arose in me, knowledge arose” concerning these truths underscores the phenomenological basis of his realisation — it is a direct, unmediated seeing into the structure of his own experience, not a received doctrine. Koṇḍañña’s attainment of the “Dhamma-eye” signifies a similar profound shift in his own perceptual and conceptual framework, a direct insight into the principle that “whatever is subject to origination is all subject to cessation.” The subsequent proclamation of devas and “world-system shaking” can be interpreted as powerful metaphors for the profound subjective impact and perceived universal significance of this breakthrough in understanding - the devas represent an internal hierarchy of consciousness states and frames of mind that were released by understanding, giving up, personally experiencing and practising the four noble truths.
Finally, the teaching on anattā (not-self) is a detailed phenomenological deconstruction of the conventional notion of a permanent, independent self. By examining the five aggregates (rūpa, vedanā, saññā, saṅkhārā, viññāṇa) as they appear in direct experience, their impermanent, conditioned, and uncontrollable nature is revealed. The conclusion that “this is not mine, this I am not, this is not my attā” arises from this direct observation. This insight leads to disenchantment with the components of experience previously identified with a “self”, followed by dispassion, and ultimately, a liberation from the suffering caused by clinging to these transient phenomena. This liberation is an experiential state, a fundamental alteration in one’s relationship to one’s own conscious experience.
Points to note:
- It would have made more sense for the Buddha to reference dependent origination in the first discourse to the ascetics, as that was the process that led to his own liberation.
- It would seem at this stage that it is possible to gain almost instantaneous understanding upon hearing the Buddha teach, which is exemplified by Koṇḍañña. Yet, presumably it took some time (days and possibly weeks) for the group of five to be liberated, as the text refers to part of the group seeking alms while the others were taught by the Buddha. Even so, it is clear that liberation is achievable within a short period of time for those who are in the right frame of mind and disposition, and certainly achievable within a single lifetime. Contrast this with later teachings which seem to imply it is almost impossible to gain realisation in one lifetime and multiple stages are required (stream enterer etc.)
- More importantly, this discourse predates the development of the “four stages of awakening” that would come to dominate Therāvada thinking.
- The expansion of the four noble truths into three phases and 12 aspects seem overly pedantic and does not really add much to the context. It would seem this may be yet another late addition to align with the notion of rolling out the Dhamma wheel with 16 spokes (representing the original 4 noble truths plus 12 aspects) (Wayman, 1980)
In Bronkhorst - The Buddhist Noble Truths: Are They True? (2023) (Bronkhorst, 2023), Bronkhorst questions if the noble truths are true, using recent neuroscience (Mark Solms’ theory) and psychology. As the truths are presented as verifiable psychological statements, Bronkhorst uses various tools to evaluate their truth claims as scientific hypotheses. Bronkhorst offers a hypothesis that dukkha can be interpreted as unresolved needs arising from perceived threats to an idealised homeostasis. Individual sensitivity to these unresolved needs varies, and it may be possible meditative or absorptive states can suspend awareness of these needs but don’t solve underlying issues. Bronkhorst proposes a potential solution: memory reconsolidation allows consolidated emotional memories to be updated or erased if reactivated and met with a “prediction error” (mismatch) within a specific time window. Therefore, erasing the emotional charge of memories underlying conflicting needs could lead to suffering cessation. Desire or ‘wanting’ (motivation/desire) may create “mini-addictions” (habits/personality traits). Resolving these traits via memory reconsolidation reduces both suffering and ‘wanting’ (desire/thirst). Bronkhorst theorises that accessing these consolidated, often non-declarative, memories is a key challenge as they may reside in the domain of the sub-conscious. Bronkhorst then speculates that deep absorption might allow focus on normally unconscious memories by suspending competing needs/associations. Other elements of the eightfold path may facilitate deep absorption and the necessary mismatch (e.g., equanimity).
I find Bronkhorst’s theory plausible, but question whether absorption allow access to unconscious memories. To me, the key question is how does one rewire and reduce innermost desires and needs embedded in the subconscious? Here the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) in Pessoa - The Entangled Brain: How Perception, Cognition, and Emotion Are Woven Together (2022) (Pessoa, 2022) may prove useful, as discussed in 1. Bodhikathā (The Account of the Bodhi Tree)
(Polak, 2011) states:
I would like to investigate the issue of the three doctrines, which are supposed to be the theoretical pinnacle of early Buddhism: the four noble truths, the dependant co-arising, and the five khandhas. Whenever one opens any popular book on the early Buddhism, one is due to bump into these concepts. All these concepts have already been evaluated by several scholars, including Schmithausen, Bronkhorst (1986: 101), and Wynne, as later developments not belonging to the earliest stratum of Buddhism. They have noted that insight into the four noble truths during the fourth jhāna, is impossible from the psychological standpoint. I will attempt to show that the acceptation of these concepts as the ‘methods of insight’ caused great problems for the ancient Buddhists. There are suttas, which report that many monks found these ‘theoretical methods’ inefficient in the dispelling of the ‘self-view’ and in attaining the ultimate breakthrough. There are also suttas presenting the four noble truths in opposition to the release from the āsavas, describing them as a preliminary insight attained at the initial stages of the path to liberation. I want to emphasize the fact that these three theories possess a very limited explanative power, when it comes to elucidating the causes of the arising of the ignorance and of the self-view. If we are to accept the fact, that these three concepts are the pinnacle of the theoretical background of early Buddhism, we must also accept the fact that it was a rather crude and primitive doctrine.
However, in Polak - Language, Conscious Experience and the Self in Early Buddhism; A Cross-cultural Interdisciplinary Study (2018) (Polak, 2018), Polak explores how language and concepts shape conscious experience and influence human functioning, particularly the arising of the self (attā). It uses a cross-cultural, interdisciplinary approach, drawing parallels with Western philosophy and cognitive science to reconstruct Buddha’s teachings, and examines the relationship between the five aggregates (khandhas) and the individual, discussing agency and subjectivity. These ideas form a framework for understanding the Buddha’s second sermon.
In subsequent discourses following these initial sermons, the Buddha defines the “world” (loko) not just externally, but primarily in terms of the human cognitive apparatus and experience: the six senses, their objects, consciousness, contact, feeling, and the five strands of sensuality. Apperception (saññā) is a complex mental process involving labelling, categorizing, recognizing based on features (nimitta), interpreting sensory input, and conceptualizing abstract ideas. The common answer that a person is merely the five aggregates (khandhas) is likely a reductionist interpretation, not the original intent. Khandhas represent aspects of phenomenal experience used for contemplation (understanding anicca, dukkha, anattā), not a complete objective analysis of a human being. (Hamilton, 2000), (Gethin, 1986), (Wynne, 2009)
Khandhas represent subjective, conscious experience. Identifying them as attā reflects the common-sense view that consciousness is the locus of agency and subjectivity. Cognitive science challenges this: most information processing is unconscious, parallel, and modular; consciousness has limited capacity (cf. Global Workspace Theory) (Baars, 2003). Thoughts, decisions, and acts of will largely originate non-consciously; conscious awareness often follows the neural readiness potential (Libet, 1999), (Wegner, 2017). Consciousness serves more for global broadcast and integration into a narrative. The Buddha’s critique of attā aligns with this: the “self” as speaker (vado) and feeler (vedeyyo) arises from misinterpreting the nature and content of conscious experience (khandhas), facilitated by language (saññā, papañca). The actual locus of agency and subjectivity may reside more holistically in the sentient body (saviññāṇaka kāya), not reducible to the khandhas. Concepts like citta and practices like kāyānupassana might point towards this.
Self-delusion isn’t just theoretical; identifying with the narrative self maintained by inner speech causes suffering (dukkha). There’s a correlation between self-reflexive consciousness, the subjective experience of psychological time, and suffering (Zahavi, 2011), (Thompson, 2011). Increased Self-awareness often coincides with time dragging and unhappiness. Moments of happiness or “flow” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990) often involve reduced Self-awareness and distorted time perception (absorption). Misunderstanding this, people pursue external objects/activities associated with past pleasure, failing to see pleasure often lies in the temporary absence of Self-consciousness. This pursuit is doomed to fail. Absorption states might not leave declarative memory traces because they lack the self-reflexive conscious experience needed for such encoding (Bronkhorst, 2012). Self-delusion can be seen as a “virus” or harmful “software” running on the “hardware” of the sentient body, possibly an evolutionary adaptation for competitiveness but inherently causing suffering. The Buddha’s soteriology aims to remove this “virus”.
Parallels
In Anālayo - Meditator Life of the Buddha (2017) (Anālayo, 2017) Anālayo writes:
According to the Mahīśāsaka and Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinayas, these five former companions had been sent by the Buddha’s father to look after the bodhisattva. A discourse in the Ekottarika-āgama reports that they had been following the bodhisattva since his birth. An alternative perspective emerges with the Lalitavistara, according to which the five, who were formerly disciples of Uddaka Rāmaputta, had witnessed how the bodhisattva quickly achieved what they had not reached after much practice. The fact that he was not satisfied with what he had achieved was what motivated them to follow him and also leave Uddaka.
Given that these five left the bodhisattva when he gave up his ascetic practices, the presentation in the Lalitavistara fits the narrative context well. Had these five been friends from his early youth or sent by his father to look after him, the fact that he decided to change his mode of practice would not really furnish sufficient reason for them to leave him. Such a decision makes more sense if they had followed him in the hope of benefiting from his realization. In such a case, once he had given up asceticism and thus what they considered necessary to reach realization, it would be natural if they decided to leave him and proceed on their own.
The Ariyapariyesanā-sutta and its Madhyama-āgama parallel continue by relating that, on his way to teaching the five, the Buddha met a wanderer by the name of Upaka.
Upaka was originally appears quite inspired by the Buddha’s impressive demeanour and appearance and seems almost ready for conversion. Yet the Buddha’s claim to be supreme and have no teacher evidently failed to convince Upaka. Anālayo comments:
Perhaps the present episode could be read as pointing to the need for the Buddha to find ways of communicating his realization that will convince others, beyond a simple claim to being the supreme victor.
By contrast, the five former companions made an agreement not to initially show respect to the Buddha. The Ariyapariyesanā-sutta and a partial parallel in the Ekottarikaāgama report a similar agreement made among the five. This episode shows that it was not going to be easy to convince them that, rather than being one who has reverted to a life of luxury, the Buddha had reached the final goal of liberation. Even though the five eventually did not keep their earlier agreement and were more welcoming to the Buddha than they had planned, when he claimed to have reached awakening they were not easily convinced. In the Ariyapariyesanā-sutta they even object three times.
The Pāli version continues right away with the delivery of the teaching on the four truths, which in the Ekottarika-āgama features in a separate discourse. The Madhyama-āgama parallel to the Ariyapariyesanāsutta also just reports the teaching on the two extremes, without proceeding to the four truths. The implication of this difference appears to be that, after the Buddha had first delivered the teaching on the two extremes, a break occurred that would have afforded the five monastics time to reflect and digest this for them rather new perspective, after which only the Buddha disclosed to them the four truths. Two biographies preserved in Chinese translation in fact report that the Buddha, having clarified the two extremes, examined the minds of the five to see if they were ready for the teaching he was to give them next.
Other Opinions
- Wayman - The Sixteen Aspects of the Four Noble Truths and Their Opposites (1980) (Wayman, 1980)
The sixteen aspects of the Four Noble Truths are a non-canonical elaboration found in Northern Buddhist Abhidharma texts, such as those by Vasubandhu and Asanga, but absent from the Southern tradition. This system assigns four specific aspects to each of the Four Noble Truths—Suffering, Source, Cessation, and Path—which are treated as objects of insight (prajñā). A key element of this framework is a corresponding list of sixteen “adversaries” or “coverings,” detailed by Tsong-kha-pa, which represent mistaken views that obscure each aspect. Analyzing these aspects and their opposites reveals significant doctrinal debates; for instance, the aspects of Suffering (duhkha, anitya, śūnya, anātman) raise challenges in distinguishing ‘voidness’ from ‘non-self’, while the aspects for the Source of Suffering are linked to Dependent Origination and their adversaries to non-Buddhist theories of causality. The author proposes a correlation where the aspects for the Path lead to the aspects of Cessation, mapping them onto the three core Buddhist instructions of morality, mental training, and insight, thereby showing how the study of this framework illuminates the diverse ways different traditions interpreted their foundational teachings. - Sharma - Rune E. A. Johansson’s Analysis of Citta: A Criticism (1981) (Sharma, 1981)
In his critique of Rune E. A. Johansson’s analysis, Arvind Sharma examines and refutes the theory thatcitta(mind) exists as a core personality factor separate from the fiveskandhas and survives death. Johansson argues thatcittais an enduring element, distinct fromviññāna(consciousness), which attainsnibbānaand continues in a diluted, impersonal state after anarahant’s death, citing as evidence the ability ofarahants to recognize one another and scriptural accounts like the story of Vakkali. Sharma contends that this evidence is insufficient to challenge the standard Theravāda position that anarahant'spost-mortem state is unpredictable. He counters that Johansson relies on a weak “argument from silence” and offers an alternative interpretation wherein anarahant’s enlightenment is recognized precisely through thenon-recognizabilityof their consciousness, rather than through an identifiable, surviving citta. - Gombrich - What the Buddha Thought (2009) (Gombrich, 2009)
Gombrich argues that literal, word-for-word translations of Buddhist texts are obscure and prevent true understanding, using the doctrine of “No Self” (anātman) as a prime example. The key to clarity, the text suggests, is to understand that for the Buddha’s original audience, the concept of a “self” (ātman) inherently meant something permanent and unchanging. Therefore, the doctrine is more accurately expressed for modern audiences as “no unchanging self” or “no unchanging soul.” This principle extends to all of reality within our experience, forming an interlocking system of thought where nothing has a fixed essence. This is encapsulated by the “three hallmarks”: because everything is impermanent (anicca), it lacks an unchanging essence (anatta) and is therefore ultimately unsatisfactory (dukkha). Ultimately, the author posits that the Buddha’s core teaching is that everything is a non-random “process,” a straightforward idea that was likely expressed figuratively in the original texts because Pali and Sanskrit may have lacked a precise word for this concept. - Bucknell - The Buddhist Path to Liberation: An Analysis of the Listing of Stages (1984) (Bucknell, 1984)
In his analysis, Rod Bucknell argues that the Noble Eightfold Path is an incomplete representation of the Buddhist course to liberation, as it omits the crucial final stages of “right insight” (sammā-ñāṇa) and “right liberation” (sammā-vimutti). By comparing the Eightfold Path with four other, similar lists of stages found in the Tipiṭaka, including a more comprehensive “tenfold path,” he demonstrates that they all describe a consistent, sequential practice where morality (sīla) and concentration (samādhi) are followed by the development of insight. Bucknell refutes the common interpretation that insight is covered by “right view” (the first stage), positing that this is merely a preliminary understanding, whereas true liberating insight is an advanced practice undertaken only after mastering concentration. He concludes that the Eightfold Path is not the definitive summary of Gotama’s teaching but one of many versions, and possibly a simplified one that omits the most advanced meditative stages. - Krishan - Buddhism and Belief in Ātman (1984) (Krishan, 1984)
The central question in Buddhism regarding a permanent soul, orātman, presents a significant dilemma: the doctrine ofanattā(no-soul) appears to contradict the belief in karma and rebirth, as it leaves no entity to bear the consequences of actions. The Buddha himself rejected the extreme views of both an eternal, unchanging soul and complete annihilation after death, instead advocating a middle path. Various Buddhist schools attempted to resolve this by proposing concepts that function like a soul without being one, such as a “rebirth-linking consciousness” (patisandhi viññāna), an “intermediate existence” (antarābhava), or an inexpressible “person” (pudgala). The author argues that the doctrine ofanattāis primarily a rejection of the ego and the notions of “I” and “mine,” which are the root of suffering, rather than a denial of a conscious principle. This is supported by the development of concepts like the “store-consciousness” (ālaya-vijñāna) and post-mortem rituals in Buddhist cultures, which imply belief in a transmigrating entity. Ultimately, Buddhism seems to deny a static, eternal soul but affirms a dynamic, impermanent yet continuous empirical self that carries karma and memory, likened to a river’s current, which is only extinguished upon attaining nirvāṇa. - Vetter - Explanations of dukkha (1998) (Vetter, 1998)
In a philological analysis of the First Noble Truth, Tilmann Vetter argues that the concluding statement on the five aggregates (upādānakkhandhā) is not a summary of suffering (dukkha), but rather another example of it. He bases this on the presence of the coordinating particlepi(“also”) in this final statement in older Pāli manuscripts, such as those used in Hermann Oldenberg’s edition of the Mahāvagga. Vetter contends that later editors and commentators, notably Buddhaghosa, worked from texts where thispiwas missing, leading them to develop an anachronistic interpretation of the aggregates as a summary or foundation for all other forms of suffering. He asserts that the original reading withpiis more historically sound, presenting the five aggregates as a distinct, added item in the list of things that aredukkha, with the termsankhittena(“in brief”) indicating it is a concise point requiring further explanation, not a summation of what precedes it. - Wynne - The ātman and its negation - A conceptual and chronological analysis of early Buddhist thought (2010) (Wynne, 2010)
The famous Buddhist “No Self” (anātman) doctrine is largely absent from the earliest texts because the original teachings were founded on a different and more subtle philosophy than the later, standard interpretation. Early critiques, such as the “Not-Self” (anattā) teaching, are grounded in a principle of “epistemological conditioning,” where fundamental concepts including “self,” “existence,” and even space-time are not ultimate realities but are dependently originated through cognitive processes. This is why the early texts pragmatically avoid direct ontological statements like “the self does not exist,” instead guiding practitioners to see that identifying with conditioned phenomena is “unsuitable” and thereby transcend the very conceptual framework that creates a sense of self. The explicit “No Self” doctrine developed later, as seen in texts like the Vajirā Sutta and the Abhidharma, when this subtle philosophy gave way to a “reductionistic realism” that analyzes the person as a collection of essenceless components within an objectively real world, thus shifting the focus from a radical critique of conceptuality to the denial of a specific entity. - Anālayo - The Chinese Parallels to the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta (1) (2012) (Anālayo, 2012)
This paper analyzes Chinese parallels to the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta, focusing on Mūlasarvāstivāda and Sarvāstivāda versions, and reveals significant variations from the Pāli canon and among the parallels themselves. Some versions, such as the Saṃyukta-āgama discourse and the Sarvāstivāda Vinaya, omit the teaching on the two extremes and the explanation of the Four Noble Truths, focusing exclusively on the “three turnings” applied to each truth. Other versions present the teachings as separate components; for instance, the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya includes the two extremes and the three turnings, but places the detailed explanation of the truths only after Kauṇḍinya’s initial awakening. The author argues against the theory that the Four Noble Truths are a late addition, proposing instead that the shorter texts are intentional extracts from a longer, multi-part discourse, and that the Mūlasarvāstivāda and Sarvāstivāda traditions considered the teaching on the “three turnings” to be the central element that set the wheel of Dharma in motion. - Anālayo - The Chinese Parallels to the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta (2) (2013) (Anālayo, 2013)
This academic paper analyzes Chinese parallels to the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta, the Buddha’s first sermon, to understand the text’s development. By comparing versions from the Ekottarika-āgama, Mahīśāsaka Vinaya, and Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, the author argues that variations point to a history of oral transmission and gradual elaboration. The existence of both a short version focusing on the two extremes and a longer one including the Four Noble Truths within the same collection suggests the former is an extract, not evidence that the truths were a later addition. The analysis notes that features like the qualifier “noble” for the truths, elaborate miracles like earthquakes, and the full exposition of the “three turnings and twelve modes” may be later developments, while core elements like the celestial acclamations are consistently present. The text also explores the sermon’s internal logic, framing the Four Noble Truths as a pragmatic medical diagnosis (disease, cause, cure, treatment), clarifyingduhkhaas “unsatisfactory” rather than just “suffering,” and emphasizing that the “turning of the wheel” is complete only when an audience member achieves realization. - Polak - Language, Conscious Experience and the Self in Early Buddhism; A Cross-cultural Interdisciplinary Study (2018) (Polak, 2018)
This article reconstructs early Buddhist thought to argue that ordinary conscious experience is fundamentally shaped by language and conceptualization, a process that creates an illusory Self which is the root of suffering. This cognitive distortion begins withsaññā(apperception), a labeling function that, through its inherent link to language, imposes a discrete, manifold structure (papañca) onto reality. The mind’s tendency to reify grammatical forms is then misapplied to personal pronouns, constructing a continuous “narrative self” that is mistakenly identified as a real agent — a “speaker and feeler” (vado vedeyyo). Drawing on parallels in Western philosophy and modern cognitive science, the text argues this delusion involves misinterpreting phenomenal consciousness (represented by the fivekhandha-s) — which is merely a limited, unified representation of vast, non-conscious bodily processes—as the actual source of agency and subjectivity. This fundamental error of identifying with a fictional, linguistically-generated entity is psychologically taxing, distorts the experience of time, and constitutes the core of human suffering. - Anālayo - The Buddha’s Awakening (2021) (Anālayo, 2021)
The framework of the Four Noble Truths was not the literal content of Buddha’s awakening experience but a pragmatic “diagnostic scheme,” analogous to a medical diagnosis, used after the fact to effectively communicate the ineffable event’s implications to others, as demonstrated in the first sermon. Therefore, textual variations, such as the inclusion or omission of the Four Truths, reflect a gradual development in how this experience was conceptualized for teaching, and the impression of doctrinal conflict arises from a later, literal reading of what was originally a metaphorical or explanatory device. - Bronkhorst - The Buddhist Noble Truths: Are They True? (2023) (Bronkhorst, 2023)
The Buddhist Four Noble Truths can be interpreted as scientifically plausible psychological claims when viewed through modern neuroscience and psychology. In this framework, suffering arises from the conscious awareness of conflicting, unresolved needs, a state often masked by temporary distractions like mental “flow.” These conflicts and their associated desires, or “thirst,” are rooted in entrenched emotional memories that form our personality, functioning like “mini-addictions.” The cessation of this suffering and desire is therefore possible through memory reconsolidation, a process where reactivating these core memories allows their emotional charge to be permanently erased. The path to this goal involves accessing these otherwise hidden memories, which the author proposes could be achieved through deep mental absorption, thereby enabling the reconsolidation process to resolve the underlying conflicts at their source. - Polak - Who Identifies with the Aggregates? Philosophical Implications of the Selected Khandha Passages in the Nikāyas (2023) (Polak, 2023)
This paper analyzes the Buddhist concept of identifying with the five aggregates (khandhas) as “I am this,” challenging the traditional view that the aggregates are the objective constituents of a person by proposing they are instead passive, phenomenal representations of subjective experience. Drawing on Nikāya similes that imply a distinction between the individual and the aggregates, the author argues that key cognitive faculties like the mind (citta) operate separately from thekhandhas, which are better understood as the end-results of cognitive processes rather than active agents themselves. Consequently, the fundamental error of identifying with the aggregates is interpreted as a mistaken projection of agency and identity onto one’s own phenomenal self-representation, a process which, by attaching to something inherently distorted and unsatisfactory (dukkha), becomes a primary source of suffering.
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