Articles

Adam - No self, no free will, no problem (2010)No self, no free will, no problem (2010) Implications of the Anattalakkhana Sutta for a perennial philosophical issue Martin T.

Anālayo - Āgama And Aṅga In The Early Buddhist Oral TraditionIn the early Buddhist oral tradition, the term `āgama` initially referred to the entire, undifferentiated body of discourses, which was later systematically divided into four collections, known as the four `āgamas` or `nikāyas`, to facilitate memorization and transmission. The author argues that the separate list of nine (or twelve) `aṅgas` was not an earlier or intermediate system for organizing these collections, but rather a classification of different textual types or literary styles, such as prose with verse, stanzas, and birth stories. The paper dismisses theories that shorter lists of `aṅgas` represent an earlier stage, suggesting they are likely abbreviations or transmission errors. Ultimately, the function of the nine `aṅgas` in the discourses was to represent the variety of the Buddha's teachings and to emphasize that true, penetrative understanding of their meaning is superior to mere rote learning of these different compositional forms.

Anālayo - Awakening or Enlightenment (2021)In this article, Bhikkhu Anālayo argues that the Pāli term *bodhi* is more accurately translated as "awakening" than "enlightenment," refuting arguments made by Bhikkhu Bodhi. Anālayo contends that the experience of *bodhi* is a sudden realization of Nirvana, which is metaphorically a "quenching" of a flame rather than an illumination, making "awakening" a more fitting description than a term implying comprehensive knowledge. He points out that while the etymological root *budh* does mean "to know," its primary sense is "to wake up," a crucial nuance that "enlightenment" misses. Anālayo also asserts that scriptural imagery involving light and radiance typically relates to the Buddha's teaching activities or preliminary meditative states, not the core experience of *bodhi* itself, which is the destruction of defilements. Finally, he warns that "enlightenment" carries problematic historical connotations with the European Enlightenment, further supporting the preference for "awakening."

Anālayo - Brahmā's Invitation (2011)In early Buddhist texts, the god Brahmā is incorporated through "inclusivism," being either satirized as a deluded creator or depicted as a subordinate protector of the Dharma. The most prominent example of this protector role is the story from the Pāli Ariyapariyesanā-sutta where Brahmā persuades the hesitant, newly-awakened Buddha to teach. This article highlights that this famous episode is completely absent from a parallel version of the discourse in the Chinese Madhyama-āgama. By comparing these texts and noting a similar pattern of absence in other parallel accounts, the analysis concludes that the story of Brahmā's intervention is likely a later addition to the tradition, rather than an original element that was subsequently lost. Therefore, this pivotal narrative, widely found in later texts and art, may not have been part of the earliest autobiographical account of the Buddha's awakening.

Anālayo - Consciousness and Dependent Arising (2020)In the Buddhist concept of dependent arising, consciousness and name-and-form share a unique, reciprocal relationship, mutually conditioning each other like two bundles of reeds that can only stand by leaning together. This dynamic, where consciousness requires name-and-form for its content and name-and-form requires consciousness to be experienced, creates the continuous matrix of subjective experience. When this consciousness becomes "established" through desire, it perpetuates the cycle of rebirth, but the "unestablished consciousness" of an enlightened one (*arahant*) is no longer dependent on name-and-form, thereby ending future re-becoming. Ultimately, the text argues that consciousness is not a solution but a conditioned, impermanent, and potentially deluding part of the human predicament (*dukkha*), and its cessation is integral to achieving liberation.

Anālayo - Dependent Arising (2020)In the Buddhist concept of dependent arising, consciousness and name-and-form share a unique, reciprocal relationship, mutually conditioning each other like two bundles of reeds that can only stand by leaning together. This dynamic, where consciousness requires name-and-form for its content and name-and-form requires consciousness to be experienced, creates the continuous matrix of subjective experience. When this consciousness becomes "established" through desire, it perpetuates the cycle of rebirth, but the "unestablished consciousness" of an enlightened one (*arahant*) is no longer dependent on name-and-form, thereby ending future re-becoming. Ultimately, the text argues that consciousness is not a solution but a conditioned, impermanent, and potentially deluding part of the human predicament (*dukkha*), and its cessation is integral to achieving liberation.

Anālayo - Dependent Arising and Interdependence (2021)The early Buddhist doctrine of "dependent arising" posits a specific conditionality, where particular phenomena arise due to identifiable causes, with the primary aim of understanding and eradicating the specific conditions, such as ignorance, that lead to human suffering. This principle is distinct from the concept of "interdependence" or "interconnectedness" — the idea that all phenomena are mutually related in a vast web — which is a later development from Mahāyāna traditions like Huayan philosophy. The text argues that modern interpretations often conflate these two divergent concepts, a confusion that diminishes the practical focus of the original teaching and is exemplified by contemporary research tools like the "Interconnectedness Scale," which incorrectly mixes items reflecting both specific conditionality and universal interdependence.

Anālayo - Oral Dimensions of Pāli Discourses - Pericopes, other Mnemonic Techniques and the Oral Performance Context (2007)Pāli discourses were shaped by a prolonged period of oral transmission, evident in formal mnemonic techniques designed for accurate verbatim preservation. These techniques include sound similarities in formulaic phrases, the "principle of waxing syllables" where words in a series increase in length, and the extensive use of repetition and pericopes—standardized descriptions for recurring events. While this emphasis on accuracy contrasts with improvisational oral traditions, variations and errors still arose, visible in differing pericopes within the Pāli canon and when compared to parallel texts in Chinese Āgamas. Functionally, recitation served purposes beyond mere preservation and teaching; it fostered communal harmony through group performance, acted as a contemplative tool for meditation that could lead to awakening, and was even used for its salutary effects on the sick. The transmission was primarily undertaken by specialized monks and nuns, but notable laypeople like Khujjuttarā also played a crucial role, with her preservation of the uniquely structured Itivuttaka collection suggesting that the formalization of texts occurred at a very early stage.

Anālayo - Right View and the Scheme of the Four Truths in Early Buddhism - The Saṃyukta-āgama Parallel to the Sammāditthi-sutta and the Simile of the Four Skills of a Physician (2011)This article explores the attainment of right view at stream-entry by analyzing the *Saṃyukta-āgama* parallel to the *Sammāditthi-sutta*. This discourse demonstrates that right view involves understanding various phenomena, such as the links of dependent arising, through the structural pattern of the four truths - identifying an item, its cause, its cessation, and the path to its cessation. The author then introduces another *Saṃyukta-āgama* discourse that explicitly compares the four truths to a four-part medical diagnosis - disease (dukkha), pathogen (craving), health (cessation), and cure (the path). The author argues that this parallel, likely adopted from a known medical practice, was used to frame the Buddha's teachings as pragmatic, therapeutic, and psychological, distinguishing them from abstract philosophical speculation. The slight difference in the sequence of the third and fourth items between the medical and Buddhist schemes suggests that medicine was the source of the analogy.

Anālayo - Teaching the Abhidharma in the Heaven of the Thirty-three, The Buddha and his Mother (2012)This paper analyzes the story of the Buddha's rainy season retreat in the Heaven of the Thirty-three to teach his mother, using a translation from the Samyukta-āgama as its basis. The author argues that the tale serves several functions, primarily as an act of "inclusivism" that elevates the Buddha's status above traditional Indian deities like Śakra, who are depicted as subservient. By comparing various textual versions and early aniconic art, the paper suggests that the famous motif of the three stairs for the Buddha's descent likely originated as an artistic necessity in aniconic depictions and was later absorbed into textual narratives, indicating that versions without it, such as the Samyukta-āgama account, may be earlier. The narrative also highlights the theme of filial piety, a significant concept in Indian Buddhism. Finally, the paper contends that the Theravāda tradition's unique claim that the Buddha taught the Abhidharma in heaven, rather than the general Dharma as other schools maintain, was a later innovation to provide celestial authentication and superior status for the Abhidharma canon.

Anālayo - The Buddha's Awakening (2021)A comparative study of early Buddhist texts suggests that differing accounts of the Buddha's awakening do not represent competing theories of realization, but rather evolving methods of describing a single, non-conceptual event. The author argues that the awakening was a direct, non-conceptual breakthrough to the experience of Nirvana, which is fundamentally beyond words.

Anālayo - The Buddha's Fire Miracles (2015)Through a comparative study of early Buddhist discourses and their parallel versions, the author argues that depictions of the Buddha performing fire miracles are likely later textual developments rather than original elements. By examining narratives such as Sakka's visit, a visit to Brahmā, and the Pāṭikaputta challenge, the text demonstrates a pattern where earlier versions lack fire displays, which are then added or amplified in other recensions, suggesting a gradual embellishment over time. The author posits that these miracles may have arisen from a literal interpretation of the fire motif, which was originally used metaphorically in both texts and art to symbolize the power of meditation or the Buddha's radiance. This conclusion is supported by the observation that the "fire element" in most early discourses refers to the physical experience of bodily heat as a meditative object, not an external manifestation of flames, with the latter usage appearing to be a later innovation.

Anālayo - The Chinese Parallels to the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta (1) (2012)This paper analyzes Chinese parallels to the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta, focusing on Mūlasarvāstivāda and Sarvāstivāda versions, and reveals significant variations from the Pāli canon and among the parallels themselves. Some versions, such as the Saṃyukta-āgama discourse and the Sarvāstivāda Vinaya, omit the teaching on the two extremes and the explanation of the Four Noble Truths, focusing exclusively on the "three turnings" applied to each truth. Other versions present the teachings as separate components; for instance, the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya includes the two extremes and the three turnings, but places the detailed explanation of the truths only after Kauṇḍinya's initial awakening. The author argues against the theory that the Four Noble Truths are a late addition, proposing instead that the shorter texts are intentional extracts from a longer, multi-part discourse, and that the Mūlasarvāstivāda and Sarvāstivāda traditions considered the teaching on the "three turnings" to be the central element that set the wheel of Dharma in motion.

Anālayo - The Chinese Parallels to the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta (2) (2012)This academic paper analyzes Chinese parallels to the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta, the Buddha's first sermon, to understand the text's development. By comparing versions from the Ekottarika-āgama, Mahīśāsaka Vinaya, and Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, the author argues that variations point to a history of oral transmission and gradual elaboration. The existence of both a short version focusing on the two extremes and a longer one including the Four Noble Truths within the same collection suggests the former is an extract, not evidence that the truths were a later addition. The analysis notes that features like the qualifier "noble" for the truths, elaborate miracles like earthquakes, and the full exposition of the "three turnings and twelve modes" may be later developments, while core elements like the celestial acclamations are consistently present. The text also explores the sermon's internal logic, framing the Four Noble Truths as a pragmatic medical diagnosis (disease, cause, cure, treatment), clarifying *duhkha* as "unsatisfactory" rather than just "suffering," and emphasizing that the "turning of the wheel" is complete only when an audience member achieves realization.

Anālayo - The Vicissitudes of Memory and Early Buddhist Oral Transmission (2009)The Vicissitudes of Memory and Early Buddhist Oral Transmission Bhikkhu Anālayo Center for Buddhist Studies, University of Hamburg, Germany; Dharma Drum Buddhist College, Taiwan Canadian Journal of Buddhist Studies, Number Five, 2009 © 2009 by Nalanda College Buddhist studies Abstract With the prese...

Anālayo- Definitions Of Right Concentration In Comparative Perspective (2019)Through a comparative analysis of early Buddhist discourses in Pāli and their Chinese and Sanskrit parallels, this article argues that the definition of right concentration as the attainment of the four absorptions (jhānas) represents a later stage of textual evolution. The author demonstrates that parallel versions of key Pāli texts which define right concentration this way either lack a definition entirely or describe it differently, often as a mind unified and endowed with the other seven factors of the Noble Eightfold Path. This historical-critical perspective suggests that the earliest understanding of right concentration was more integrated with the other path factors and did not necessitate deep absorptive states. Consequently, the author concludes that the ability to attain the four absorptions is not a necessary condition for reaching stream-entry, the first stage of awakening.

Attwood - Possible Iranian Origins for the Śākyas and Aspects of Buddhism (2012)This article explores Michael Witzel's theory that the Śākya tribe, the Buddha's clan, had Iranian origins, potentially as an early migration of Scythians (Sakas). The argument rests on circumstantial evidence linking Śākya and early Buddhist characteristics to Iranian or Zoroastrian culture, such as the origin story of sibling marriage (a known Iranian custom), the moral triad of body, speech, and mind, and an ethicized eschatology featuring post-mortem judgment, none of which are prominent in contemporary Brahmanical traditions. The author proposes that these ideas were transmitted via a migration of tribes like the Śākyas into the Central Ganges region around the 9th century BCE, bypassing the main Vedic cultural centers. This thesis challenges the view of Buddhism as solely a reaction to Brahmanism, suggesting instead that it emerged from a broader cultural milieu and that the Buddha may have been a product of his tribe's assimilated Iranian heritage.

Bamford - The Uses of Philology - A Case Study in Popularising Buddhism (2015)This paper critiques the use of a philologically unsound translation of a Buddhist text within UK public policy discourse, specifically by the Royal Society of Arts (RSA) in its "Spiritualise" report. The author, Geoffrey Bamford, traces a popularised quote about "ground" and "place" to Stephen Batchelor's idiosyncratic translation of the Ariyapariyesanāsutta, which misinterprets the Pali word *ālaya* (clinging/attachment) as "place" and the common word *ṭhāna* (state/fact) as "ground." This error creates an existentialist concept of a "groundless ground" that is alien to the apophatic nature of the Pali canon. Bamford argues that while the popularisation is inaccurate, its influence demonstrates a significant Western appetite for Buddhist ideas, suggesting that the very aspects of Buddhism that challenge ingrained cultural habits of thought are precisely what make it appealing, even when misunderstood.

Blanchard - Burning Yourself (2010)This paper proposes that the Buddhist teaching of Dependent Arising (paṭicca samuppāda) is structured as a polemic modeled on the Vedic fire rituals of the Buddha's time, particularly the Agnicayana, which were intended to create and perfect an eternal self (ātman) by re-enacting creation myths like that of Prajāpati. The author argues that the Buddha co-opted this familiar ritualistic framework to demonstrate how individuals, through their own habitual psychological "rituals"—such as clinging to feelings (vedanā), craving (taṇhā), and forming views (upādāna)—construct a false and impermanent sense of self. This constructed self, born from ignorance (avijjā), is what undergoes the cycle of "birth" (jāti) and "aging and death" (jarāmaraṇa), which is presented as a metonym for suffering (dukkha). By using this model, the Buddha refutes the Vedic worldview, showing that its methods, when understood as psychological processes, lead not to an eternal, blissful self but to the creation of a transient, suffering identity, a context that, once lost, made the teaching's structure obscure to later generations.

Brekke - The Early Saṃgha and the Laity (2019)The early Buddhist Saṃgha transformed from an open, conversionist movement that actively competed for followers into a more withdrawn, introversionist community due to the influx of members with extrinsic, or worldly, motivations. Citing the Vinayapitaka, the author shows that many people joined the order not for spiritual reasons but to escape poverty, debt, punishment, or simply to secure a comfortable life, which threatened the Saṃgha's purity and reputation among the laity. In response, the Saṃgha developed introversionist measures to protect its integrity, including stricter admission procedures, detailed rules for appearance and conduct to ensure monks appeared dignified and aloof, an emphasis on internal unity to prevent schisms, and the establishment of fixed monastic dwellings that physically separated the community from the world. This created a self-enforcing cycle where the Saṃgha's cultivated purity attracted greater lay support, which in turn made it a more appealing refuge for extrinsically motivated individuals, necessitating a continuous process of purification to maintain its stability.

Bronkhorst - Did the Buddha Believe in Karma and Rebirth (2021)Johannes Bronkhorst argues that the historical Buddha did believe in karma and rebirth, but that his crucial innovation was to redefine karma not as physical or mental activity, but as the psychological element of intention and desire (*tṛṣṇā*). This unique understanding explains why the Buddhist path to liberation is fundamentally psychological, focusing on mindfulness and insight, rather than relying on the physical asceticism or doctrines of an inactive Self found in contemporary traditions like Jainism. Bronkhorst critiques scholarly attempts to locate the "original" teaching in passages that resemble Vedic or Jaina ideas, suggesting these are more likely later borrowings or misunderstandings by followers who struggled to grasp the Buddha's distinct psychological focus.

Bronkhorst - Some Uses Of Dharma In Classical Indian Philosophy (2004)In classical Indian philosophy, the term *dharma* has two distinct primary uses, one Buddhist and one Brahmanical. In Buddhist Abhidharma, particularly the Sarvāstivāda school, *dharmas* (plural) are the ultimate, irreducible, and momentary constituents of all that exists; this atomistic view posits that only these fundamental elements are real, while complex entities like persons are non-existent composites. In contrast, the Brahmanical Vaiśeṣika school demonstrates a significant evolution in the concept of *dharma* (singular). Initially understood as 'merit' defined by Vedic injunctions, similar to the Mīmāṃsā school's view, *dharma* was later transformed by Vaiśeṣika's ontological concerns. In its classical formulation, *dharma* became a specific quality inherent in the soul (*ātman*), paired with its opposite *adharma* (demerit), absorbing the older, distinct concept of *adṛṣṭa* ('the unseen') to become a precise causal factor in a person's psychological functioning and path to liberation.

Bronkhorst - The Buddhist Noble Truths (2023)The Buddhist Four Noble Truths can be interpreted as scientifically plausible psychological claims when viewed through modern neuroscience and psychology. In this framework, suffering arises from the conscious awareness of conflicting, unresolved needs, a state often masked by temporary distractions like mental "flow." These conflicts and their associated desires, or "thirst," are rooted in entrenched emotional memories that form our personality, functioning like "mini-addictions." The cessation of this suffering and desire is therefore possible through memory reconsolidation, a process where reactivating these core memories allows their emotional charge to be permanently erased. The path to this goal involves accessing these otherwise hidden memories, which the author proposes could be achieved through deep mental absorption, thereby enabling the reconsolidation process to resolve the underlying conflicts at their source.

Bucknell - Conditioned Arising Evolves (1999)Roderick S. Bucknell's article argues that the well-known twelve-link chain of Conditioned Arising (paṭicca-samuppāda) is a simplified and structurally distorted version of a more complex, branching ancestral doctrine that was altered during early oral transmission. He posits that different textual versions, such as the "looped," "branched," and "Sutta-nipāta" accounts, represent fragments or derivatives of this original form, in which consciousness (viññāṇa) arose from two distinct causal sources - one from ignorance and activities, and another from the interaction of sense organs (saḷāyatana) and sense objects, for which `nāma-rūpa` was the original collective term. The process of memorization and recitation, particularly in reverse, likely flattened this branching structure into a linear sequence, which in turn necessitated a scholastic reinterpretation of key terms like `nāma-rūpa` (as mind-body) and `viññāṇa` (as rebirth consciousness) to make the new, simplified chain coherent.

Bucknell - The Buddhist Path to Liberation (1984)In his analysis, Rod Bucknell argues that the Noble Eightfold Path is an incomplete representation of the Buddhist course to liberation, as it omits the crucial final stages of "right insight" (sammā-ñāṇa) and "right liberation" (sammā-vimutti). By comparing the Eightfold Path with four other, similar lists of stages found in the Tipiṭaka, including a more comprehensive "tenfold path," he demonstrates that they all describe a consistent, sequential practice where morality (sīla) and concentration (samādhi) are followed by the development of insight. Bucknell refutes the common interpretation that insight is covered by "right view" (the first stage), positing that this is merely a preliminary understanding, whereas true liberating insight is an advanced practice undertaken only after mastering concentration. He concludes that the Eightfold Path is not the definitive summary of Gotama's teaching but one of many versions, and possibly a simplified one that omits the most advanced meditative stages.

Clough - The higher knowledges in the Pāli Nikāyas and Vinaya (2010)In early Buddhist texts like the Pāli Nikāyas and Vinaya, the *abhiññās* or "higher knowledges" are an integral, though often overlooked, component of the path to liberation. These extraordinary abilities, attained in advanced states of meditation, typically include five mundane powers - supernormal feats (iddhi), divine ear, mind-reading, recollection of past lives, and the divine eye. A sixth, supermundane knowledge—the destruction of the mental defilements (āsavakkhayañāna) — is uniquely Buddhist and constitutes enlightenment itself. Although the Buddha expressed wariness about their pursuit and display, and they were not always considered essential for liberation, the abhiññās served crucial pedagogical, epistemological, and soteriological functions. They acted as signs of meditative progress, tools for teaching, and, most importantly, as a means to experientially verify core Buddhist doctrines like kamma, rebirth, and the Four Noble Truths, with the final three knowledges being central to the traditional account of the Buddha's own awakening.

Collins - On The Very Idea Of The Pali Canon (1990)Steven Collins argues that the Pali Canon should not be seen as the pre-existing foundation of Theravāda Buddhism, but rather as a product created by the Mahāvihāra monastic lineage in Ceylon during the first millennium A.D. as a strategy for legitimation. This development was driven by a rivalry with the competing Abhayagiri monastery, which accepted a wider range of scriptures. The Mahāvihāra monks established their authority by creating a closed, exclusive list of texts defined as the historical "Buddha's Word" (`buddhavacana`), committing these texts and their commentaries to writing, standardizing their interpretation through figures like Buddhaghosa, and authoring historical chronicles (`vamsa`) to construct a singular, legitimate line of succession. Collins concludes that while the *idea* of a fixed canon was ideologically crucial for establishing this orthodoxy, in practice, the religious life of Theravāda cultures has always drawn from a much broader selection of canonical and non-canonical works, making the concept of the canon more significant than its specific textual contents.

Cousins - The Early Development of Buddhist Literature and Language in India (2013)L.S. Cousins re-examines the early development of Buddhist literature, arguing that the Pali Canon was first systematically written down not in Ceylon, but on the Indian mainland around the first century B.C. before being imported to the island. This written canon was based on a largely non-sectarian oral tradition of chanted texts (*bhāṇaka* tradition) that had been developing since the Buddha's time (c. 400 BCE), and its initial contents included the four main Nikāyas, Vinaya, Abhidhamma, and several Khuddakanikāya texts. The language used was not a spoken dialect but an evolving written lingua franca, which Cousins terms 'Old Pali,' derived from a post-Asokan epigraphic Prakrit. This written language subsequently underwent a process of Sanskritization, becoming 'Hybrid Pali,' before being standardized into the classical Pali we know today by commentators around the fourth or fifth century A.D., who consistently referred to it as Māgadhī.

Drewes - A Historical Buddha After All? (2023)In this paper, David Drewes refutes Oskar von Hinüber's arguments for the historicity of the Buddha, reaffirming his position that there is no reliable evidence to establish the Buddha as a historical figure. Drewes systematically dismantles von Hinüber's reasoning, arguing that the earliness of a text does not guarantee its historicity, as the early Buddhist texts are fundamentally concerned with supernatural events rather than historical records. He deconstructs specific claims, such as the interpretation of the Upaka story through the "criterion of embarrassment" and the early dating of the *Mahāparinibbānasutta*, by providing alternative explanations rooted in literary tropes, polemics, or philological analysis. Drewes concludes that scholarship on the historical Buddha has relied on fallacious arguments from authority and subjective interpretations rather than scientific evidence, and that without such evidence, the Buddha's existence remains a matter of faith rather than a demonstrable historical fact.

Drewes - The Idea Of The Historical Buddha (2017)In a reevaluation of the Buddha's historicity, David Drewes argues that scholarship has never actually established that the Buddha was a real person and that he cannot be properly considered a historical figure. The author traces the development of the idea from the early nineteenth century, when the Buddha's existence was an open question, through the pivotal work of scholars like Eugène Burnouf, who separated the final Buddha, Śākyamuni, from his mythical predecessors based on Nepalese tradition rather than new evidence. Drewes contends that subsequent influential scholars, such as T.W. Rhys Davids and Hermann Oldenberg, cemented the Buddha's historicity not through factual discovery but by presupposing it and defending it with fallacious arguments, such as the logical necessity of a founder or appeals to a scholarly consensus that was not yet established. Even major twentieth-century proponents like E.J. Thomas, Étienne Lamotte, and André Bareau admitted that no reliable historical data could be extracted from the legends. Drewes concludes that since early texts depict a generic, supernatural being rather than a specific individual—with names like "Siddhārtha" being late additions and clan names like "Śākya" being potentially mythical—the Buddha belongs in the same category as other ahistorical founders like Vyāsa or Laozi, whose existence is a matter of belief rather than empirical fact.

Drewes - Toward Blue Skies Ahead - Reply To Von Hinüber's Second Response (2023)In this reply, David Drewes defends his thesis on the lack of evidence for the historical Buddha against critiques from Prof. Dr. von Hinüber, clarifying that his original paper targeted the scholarly inconsistency of affirming historicity without proof. Drewes explains that his focus on secondary sources is due to the absence of any primary texts being presented as evidence, and he posits that the origins of Buddhism before the mid-third century BCE are unknowable, cautioning against projecting modern concepts like "mystical experience" onto its prehistory. He systematically refutes von Hinüber's specific counterarguments by employing detailed linguistic and manuscript evidence to defend his textual emendations in the Dīrghāgama and Sañghabhedavastu, and he substantiates his mythological analysis by showing that numerous Indian myths, including the Sītā story, feature a ritualistic golden plow, thereby connecting a Pali story about the Buddha's youth to this broader narrative tradition.

Eltschinger - Ignorance, epistemology and soteriology Part I (2009)In his analysis of the 7th-century Buddhist philosopher Dharmakīrti, Vincent Eltschinger argues that Dharmakīrti's epistemology is fundamentally intertwined with his soteriological project, centering on the concept of ignorance (avidyā). Dharmakīrti defines ignorance not as a mere lack of knowledge but as an active, erroneous cognition (mithyopalabdhi) that functions as a counter-knowledge, obstructing the perception of reality. This error is identified with conceptual thought (vikalpa) itself, which, through a process of 'concealment' (saṃvṛti), superimposes unifying constructs onto reality's diverse particulars. To explain how this cognitive error leads to suffering, Dharmakīrti specifies that the most crucial form of ignorance is the 'personalistic false view' (satkāyadrṣṭi)—the innate, conceptual belief in a self. He explicitly equates this false view with ignorance, arguing it is the root of all defilements and rebirth, and that its direct antidote — the perception of selflessness — is the key to liberation. While drawing on earlier scriptural traditions, Dharmakīrti was innovative in systematically equating the two and developing exegetical strategies to defend this unorthodox position.

Eltschinger - Ignorance, epistemology and soteriology Part II (2010)In the philosophy of Dharmakīrti, ignorance (avidyā) is defined as a "counter-knowledge" or conceptual construction that superimposes erroneous ideas onto reality, becoming soteriologically significant as the "personalistic false view" (satkāyadrṣṭi) — the mistaken belief in a "self" and "one's own." This specific form of ignorance is the root cause of all defilements like craving and aversion, thereby generating the cycle of rebirth and suffering (samsāra). Dharmakīrti's path to salvation is built upon two means of valid cognition - perception, which is true, direct, non-conceptual knowledge that grasps reality's selfless and momentary nature, and inference. Although inference is itself a conceptual process and thus part of ignorance, its crucial function is corrective. It does not aim to discover new truths, which perception has already accessed, but rather to eliminate the erroneous superimpositions that obscure perception. By systematically using inference to exclude false notions like permanence and selfhood, a practitioner achieves determinate cognition and purifies the mind, ultimately restoring perception to its inherently radiant and liberated state, free from the counteracting influence of ignorance.

Fiordalis - Miracles in Indian Buddhist narratives and doctrine (2010)The narrative of the Kāśyapa brothers' conversion, a cornerstone of early Buddhist texts like the Mahāvagga, illustrates a "thaumaturgical impasse" where the Buddha initially fails to convert rival ascetics through numerous displays of superhuman power, such as taming a fire-breathing serpent, but fails to convert the ascetic Kāśyapa, who remains convinced of his own spiritual superiority. The impasse is only broken when the Buddha employs telepathy to read Kāśyapa's prideful thoughts and confronts him directly, which finally leads to his conversion and is followed by the Buddha's "Fire Sermon." By comparing alternate versions of this story from different Buddhist schools, the author demonstrates that while some accounts suggest a hierarchy in which telepathy and teaching are superior to physical miracles, other versions blend these categories, indicating that early Buddhists did not hold a single, unified view on the relationship and effectiveness of the three types of miracles—superhuman power, mind-reading, and teaching the Dharma.

Freiberger - The Buddhist Canon And The Canon Of Buddhist Studies (2004)The Buddhist Canon And The Canon Of Buddhist Studies Oliver Freiberger JIABS Vol 27 Issue 2 pp.

Gokhale - Early Buddhism and the Urban Revolution (1983)The rise and popular acceptance of early Buddhism were intrinsically linked to the significant urban revolution in the Gangetic region around the sixth century B.C., a period of agricultural surplus, increased trade, and the emergence of a powerful new class of merchants and bankers alongside new monarchies. Statistical analysis of early Pāli texts reveals that the vast majority of the Buddha's discourses were delivered in a few major cities, particularly the commercial hub of Sāvatthi, indicating that Buddhism drew its primary social and material support from these new urban classes. This association shaped the religion's character, emphasizing practical, individual ethics over speculative metaphysics and Vedic ritual to meet the needs of its patrons. The text argues that the later decline of this urbanism and the "feudalization" of monasteries, which became dependent on land grants, contributed to Buddhism's subsequent shift towards metaphysics and a weakening of its original, socially-vital foundations.

Hinūber - Hoary Past And Hazy Memory - On The History Of Early Buddhist Texts (2006)Oskar V. Hinūber argues that early Buddhist texts contain "historical memory" which can be used for dating and cautious historical analysis, challenging the notion that ancient India lacked a sense of history. By examining the evolution of sutta opening formulas, he identifies an archaic syntactical structure, traceable to Indo-Iranian, that refers to obscure market towns (*nigamas*) and Brahmin villages (*brāhmaṇagāmas*), representing an older textual layer than the more common references to major cities and monasteries. Applying this critical method to the *Mahāparinibbānasuttanta*, he posits a pre-Mauryan composition date (c. 350-320 BC) based on its description of Pātaliputta as a future commercial hub rather than a political capital and its downplaying of the Moriyas, which contrasts with later Buddhist texts that actively incorporated contemporary rulers like Aśoka and Kaniṣka. This early dating suggests that while the text is primarily hagiography replete with mythology, it may preserve genuine historical details from the decades immediately following the Buddha's death.

Hinüber - The Buddha As A Historical Person (2019)In response to claims that the Buddha was not a historical person, Oskar von Hinüber argues for his historicity by analyzing early Pāli texts for archaic elements and genuine memories. He posits that details contradicting later, more mythological biographies are unlikely to be inventions and may represent a historical core. Evidence includes the Aśokan inscription confirming Lumbinī as the Buddha's birthplace; textual accounts of his father as a working farmer rather than a king; and a description of his parents weeping as he left home, which conflicts with later narratives. A key example is the Buddha's failure to impress the Ājīvika Upaka, an embarrassing episode for the tradition, whose antiquity is supported by archaic linguistic forms and its subsequent alteration or omission in later texts. Further evidence from the *Mahāparinibbānasuttanta*, such as the obscure name of the Buddha's last meal (*sūkaramaddava*) and moments of human frailty, also suggest the preservation of authentic details from the life of a real person.

Hinüber - The Historical Dr. Drewes And The Buddha (2023)In a rebuttal to Dr. Drewes's critique, Oskar von Hinüber defends his argument for the Buddha as a historical person by asserting that Drewes focuses on the opinions of other scholars rather than engaging with primary sources. Hinüber reiterates his own method, which involves analyzing the earliest possible texts for linguistic clues and for details that were later suppressed by the tradition, as these are likely to contain fragments of historical memory. He refutes Drewes's specific counterarguments concerning the Upaka episode and the Jambu tree meditation, defending his philological analysis and dismissing Drewes's claims of textual corruption and flawed mythological parallels. Ultimately, Hinüber argues that while a full biography is impossible, a vivid historical memory existed in ancient India, distinct from formal historiography, and that traces of this memory of a real person can be found in the oldest Buddhist texts through careful scholarly application rather than abstract debate.

Jurewicz- Playing with Fire (2000)In her analysis, Joanna Jurewicz posits that the Buddhist law of dependent origination (pratītyasamutpāda) is a polemical reinterpretation of Vedic cosmogony, which shares a similar structure and even specific concepts but is stripped of its positive value by the Buddhist doctrine of no-self (anattā). The twelve links of the Buddhist chain are shown to parallel stages of Vedic creation, where concepts like *avidyā* (ignorance) and *saṃskāra* (volition) mirror the Creator's initial state and subsequent will, and later links like *nāmarūpa* (name-and-form) and the sense bases (*ṣaḍāyatana*) map onto the *ātman's* differentiation into the cognized world. The central Vedic metaphor of a creative, divine fire (Agni) is deliberately inverted, with its "thirst" to create becoming the destructive fire of craving (*tṛṣṇā*) and its need for fuel becoming clinging (*upādāna*). By systematically removing the *ātman* as the divine agent, the Buddha reframes the entire desirable Vedic creative process as a meaningless and absurd chain of events that inevitably culminates in suffering through becoming, birth, and death (*bhava, jāti, jarāmaraṇa*).

Kalupahana - The Philosophy of Early History in Buddhism (1981)The text explores why early Buddhism, despite accepting the reality of the empirical world, lacked historical writings in the Western sense. It contrasts the Western speculative philosophy of history, which posits an unfolding Absolute, with the critical philosophy that views history as a value-laden discipline. Early Buddhism rejects the speculative approach, categorizing such grand theories as dispositionally constructed "views" (diṭṭhi) based on incomplete evidence and metaphysical assumptions. While aligning with the critical view in recognizing the evaluative nature of historical interpretation, Buddhism values "knowledge of the past" (pubbante ñāṇa) for its pragmatic role in understanding suffering. This understanding is grounded not in an absolute framework or first cause, but in the principle of dependent arising (paticcasamuppāda), a causal process knowable through experience. The ultimate goal is not to construct historical narratives but to use knowledge of causation to pacify dispositions and achieve nirvāṇa, thereby focusing on the present without being bound by speculative reconstructions of the past.

Karpik - A Reply to Bryan Levman’s The Language the Buddha Spoke (2019)In a comprehensive rebuttal to Bryan Levman's theory, Stefan Karpik rejects the proposition of an early "pre-Pali" *lingua franca* that evolved into a later, mutually unintelligible Pali. Karpik argues that Levman's reconstructions are undateable, do not prove a *lingua franca* over other possibilities like bilingualism, and fail to explain why an original transmission would be discarded. The core of Karpik's critique focuses on Levman's flawed linguistic methodology, particularly the incorrect assumption of directionality in sound changes, which leads to proposing numerous implausible and unattested "fortitions" (sound strengthening) where lenition, orthographic errors, or dialectical variations are more likely explanations. Karpik further dismisses the claim of rapid linguistic change and mutual unintelligibility due to a lack of syntactical evidence, accusing Levman of circular reasoning and misrepresenting other scholars, ultimately advocating for a simpler model of steady linguistic development where Pali itself is the pre-Aśokan language of the Buddha.

Karpik - Light on Epigraphic Pali - More on the Buddha Teaching in Pali (2023)Stefan Karpik argues that the 20th-century scholarly consensus that the Buddha spoke Māgadhī, as reflected in Eastern Aśokan inscriptions, is a myth. He contends, based on computer searches and a re-examination of Pali commentaries, that the term 'Māgadhī' was deliberately avoided and that the Buddha, a Kosalan, most likely spoke Pali. Karpik introduces the concept of 'Epigraphic Pali' to reclassify what others have called 'central-western epigraphic Prakrit', demonstrating through analysis of nine inscriptions from various contexts that this widespread inscriptional language is a later, naturally evolved form of canonical Pali. This evidence suggests Pali was not an artificial, ecclesiastical language but a standard, non-sectarian vernacular used across India for centuries. Consequently, he proposes that all early Buddhist canons were originally composed in Pali, the language of the Buddha, before being transmitted and adapted into other dialects and languages, a hypothesis that resolves questions of linguistic authenticity without privileging any single canon.

Karpik - The Buddha taught in Pali - A working hypothesis (2019)This paper challenges the scholarly consensus that the Buddha taught in multiple dialects like Māgadhī, a theory known as the Multiple Oral Transmission Theory (MOTT). Instead, it argues for a Single Oral Transmission Theory (SOTT), proposing that the Buddha used a single standard language, which is the language we now call Pali. The author contends that oral translation of the vast canon was impractical, unnecessary due to the mutual intelligibility of Indo-Aryan dialects, and explicitly discouraged by the suttas' emphasis on word-for-word transmission. The traditional identification of the Buddha's language as Māgadhī is based on a misreading of the term *Māgadhabhāsā* in the commentaries, which actually defined it as *Ariyaka* (Indo-Aryan), a pan-regional term. The paper posits that Pali was a natural, pre-existing standard language based on a western dialect, a precursor to the widespread Epigraphic Prakrit, and that the Buddha adopted this sociolect of the educated to ensure a fixed, albeit phonetically fluid, transmission of his teachings across different regions. This working hypothesis refutes the MOTT by explaining dialectal variants in Pali as natural artifacts of a single transmission rather than remnants of a translation, thereby aligning with the Theravada tradition's claim.

Krishan - Buddhism and Belief in Ātman (1984)The central question in Buddhism regarding a permanent soul, or *ātman*, presents a significant dilemma - the doctrine of *anattā* (no-soul) appears to contradict the belief in karma and rebirth, as it leaves no entity to bear the consequences of actions. The Buddha himself rejected the extreme views of both an eternal, unchanging soul and complete annihilation after death, instead advocating a middle path. Various Buddhist schools attempted to resolve this by proposing concepts that function like a soul without being one, such as a "rebirth-linking consciousness" (*patisandhi viññāna*), an "intermediate existence" (*antarābhava*), or an inexpressible "person" (*pudgala*). The author argues that the doctrine of *anattā* is primarily a rejection of the ego and the notions of "I" and "mine," which are the root of suffering, rather than a denial of a conscious principle. This is supported by the development of concepts like the "store-consciousness" (*ālaya-vijñāna*) and post-mortem rituals in Buddhist cultures, which imply belief in a transmigrating entity. Ultimately, Buddhism seems to deny a static, eternal soul but affirms a dynamic, impermanent yet continuous empirical self that carries karma and memory, likened to a river's current, which is only extinguished upon attaining *nirvāṇa*.

Levman - Cultural Remnants of the Indigenous Peoples in the Buddhist Scriptures (2014)Bryan Levman's article argues that Buddhist scriptures contain significant cultural remnants from India's indigenous Munda, Dravidian, and Tibeto-Burman peoples, which have been obscured by a later "brahmanization" that historicized the Buddha within the dominant Indo-Aryan (IA) tradition. The author identifies this indigenous influence by examining the hostility between IA immigrants and eastern ethnic groups like the Buddha's Sakya clan, whose distinct socio-political organization (*gaṇasaṅgha*), rejection of the Brahmanical class system, and non-Aryan marriage customs are evident in the texts. Furthermore, key Buddhist concepts and practices are traced to autochthonous roots, including the idea of the *Mahāpuruṣa* (Great Man), the veneration of trees and serpents (*nāgas*), the culture of sacred groves, and the unique funeral rites described for the Buddha's *parinibbāna*, all of which differ significantly from Vedic norms.

Levman - The Historical Buddha - Response to Drewes (2019)In response to the hypothesis that the Buddha was a mythical figure, this article establishes his historicity through four main arguments. The Buddhist canon is situated in a verifiable historical context, with its places, rulers, and rivalries corroborated by external sources like the Aśokan edicts and Jain texts, while linguistic analysis of names and cultural terms reveals authentic indigenous roots. The unique, coherent, and profound system of Buddhist teachings is most parsimoniously explained as the product of a single, brilliant individual rather than an invention or organic evolution. Furthermore, the canon's un-idealized portrayal of the Buddha as a human being who aged, suffered from physical ailments like a bad back, expressed anger, and died a painful death contradicts the notion of a purely mythologized character. Finally, despite later biographical embellishments, a core, unembellished biography of a real person can be discerned in the earliest scriptural layers, suggesting an authentic figure whose life was later aggrandized rather than a complete fabrication.

Levman - The language of early Buddhism (2016)The earliest recoverable language of Buddhism was not a specific regional dialect but a Middle Indo-Aryan (MIA) *koine*, an inter-dialectal common language created through simplification and the leveling of distinct features to facilitate communication. Evidence for this underlying language is found by comparing parallel Buddhist transmissions in Pāli, Gāndhārī, and other Prakrits, where translation errors and ambiguities (hyperforms) point to a shared, phonologically reduced source. Key characteristics of this *koine* include the weakening or elimination of intervocalic stops, the reduction of aspirated stops to simple aspirates, the assimilation of consonant clusters, and the merging of sibilants. The formation of this simplified language was driven not only by the need to harmonize different MIA dialects but was also significantly catalyzed by contact with other languages in the ancient Indian "Sprachbund," such as Dravidian, Munda, and Tocharian, whose speakers lacked features like phonemic voicing or aspirated stops, thereby accelerating the development of a more universally intelligible form of MIA.

Levman - The language the Buddha spoke (2019)Bryan Levman argues that the Buddha spoke not Pāli as we know it, but an earlier, related vernacular or *koine* that differed in word form, morphology, and sometimes meaning. Evidence for this earlier linguistic layer is uncovered by applying comparative historical linguistics to the various Pāli recensions and parallel transmissions in other Prakrits, such as Gāndhārī. This method reveals that many variant readings and semantic ambiguities in the canon can be traced back to a common ancestral form in the *koine* which had undergone significant phonetic simplification, such as the weakening of intervocalic consonants into glides or the reduction of various aspirated stops to a simple aspirate. Later redactors, transmitting the teachings into their own dialects, reinterpreted these simplified sounds, resulting in the multiple cognate forms found today, a process further complicated by influences from prestigious northwestern dialects and the assimilation of non-Aryan words. Levman concludes that this linguistic evolution is consistent with the Buddhist doctrine of impermanence and supports the Buddha's historicity.

Makcharoen - Why Women Cannot Be Buddha? (2018)According to the text, the assertion that only men can be enlightened as a Buddha is not based on spiritual inferiority but on practical and contextual factors. The path to Buddhahood requires fulfilling the eight qualifications of Dhammasamothan, one of which is masculinity. This requirement stems from four main considerations - the physically demanding duties and missions of a Buddha, which involve constant travel and teaching; the natural sufferings and physical nature of women, such as menstruation and pregnancy, which are seen as obstacles; the social and cultural conditions of ancient India, where a female leader would not have been accepted, thus hindering the religion's propagation; and the need to support male followers by avoiding the potential for infatuation. Therefore, while women and men have equal potential to perform meritorious acts, the specific role of a Buddha is considered suitable only for a man, and a woman aspiring to this path must first be reborn in a male form.

Norman - Aspects of Early Buddhism (1990)In early Buddhism, the denial of a permanent self (attā) raises the question of what transmigrates through saṃsāra, with the Buddha refuting the idea of a permanent consciousness (viññāṇa) and instead proposing the doctrine of dependent origination (paṭicca-samuppāda). This causal chain explains how suffering arises from conditions like ignorance (avijjā) and craving (taṇhā), and liberation (nibbāna) is achieved by breaking this chain. The Pāli canon presents multiple, sometimes conflicting, paths to this goal, including the Buddha's own attainment of bodhi through meditative states (jhānas) and the destruction of the āsavas ("afflictions"), and the more widely taught Eight-Fold Path which leads to the cessation of suffering (dukkha-nirodha). Ultimately, nibbāna is not a state of being for a soul but is described as the uncompounded (asaṅkhata) and indescribable reality that remains when the conditioned elements (khandhas) that constitute an individual cease, thus ending the cycle of rebirth.

Norman - The Four Noble Truths (1983)K.R. Norman's paper investigates the long-standing grammatical and syntactical problems within the standard Pāli formulation of the Four Noble Truths, specifically the use of neuter/accusative endings for masculine nouns (`samudayaṃ`, `nirodhaṃ`) and the uniform use of the neuter pronoun `idaṃ`. By comparing various textual versions in Pāli and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit, Norman argues that the original statements were grammatically straightforward and did not include the term `ariya-saccaṃ` (noble truth). He proposes that the inconsistencies arose historically when `ariya-saccaṃ` was added, forming syntactical compounds where a sandhi `-m-` was inserted to prevent hiatus (e.g., `*dukkha-samudaya-m-ariya-saccaṃ`). Subsequent scribal tradition misinterpreted this structure, leading to a faulty word division that created the anomalous forms, while the pronoun `idaṃ` was generalized from the first truth to the other three by analogy.

Norman - The origin of Pāli and its position among the Indo-European languages (1988)Pāli is a Middle Indo-Aryan language that originated not as a specific regional tongue but as a composite literary dialect used for the Buddhist canon. Descending from the Indo-European language family, it developed from the various Prakrits spoken in North India following the migration of Indo-Aryan peoples and their interaction with indigenous Dravidian and Munda populations. The Buddha and his followers preached in these local vernaculars, and Pāli emerged from the subsequent effort to standardize these diverse teachings into a single language for the Theravādin tradition. While primarily based on a Western Prakrit, Pāli retains features from other dialects, such as Māgadhī, reflecting its mixed origins and the process of translation and compilation. The language was largely fixed when the canon was committed to writing in the first century B.C., after which it underwent further editorial standardization, including significant Sanskritization and, in later periods, minor influences from Sinhalese and the work of medieval Pāli grammarians.

Norman - Why Are the Four Noble Truths Called "Noble"? (2008)The common English translation "Four Noble Truths" represents only one of several possible interpretations of the Pāli compound *ariyasaccāni* and is likely the least significant one according to early Buddhist traditions. The 5th-century commentator Buddhaghosa, analyzing the term's grammar, offered multiple simultaneous meanings, including "the truths of the Noble One (the Buddha)," "the truths penetrated by noble ones," and "the truths which cause nobleness" or "the ennobling truths." Buddhaghosa and other commentators like Dhammapāla prioritized these interpretations over the simple descriptive meaning of "noble truths," which can be seen as a tautology. The original Pāli term was likely intended to encompass all these meanings at once, highlighting a fundamental difficulty in translation where a single, multifaceted concept in one language must be reduced to a more limited one in another.

Pind - Did the Buddha address the monks in Māgadhī? (2021)This paper argues that the distribution of the Pāli vocatives *bhikkhave* and *bhikkhavo* in the canon is determined by prosody and syntax, not by historical or dialectal origins as is commonly assumed. Refuting the theory that *bhikkhave* is a preserved "Māgadhism" reflecting the Buddha's speech, the author demonstrates a structural and complementary distribution between the two forms. *Bhikkhavo* functions as an emphatic vocative, used at the beginning of prose sentences—notably in stock introductory formulas—and exclusively in verse, a pattern that parallels the use of the emphatic vocative *bhaddante*. Conversely, *bhikkhave* is the non-emphatic, or clitic, form which never occurs initially and is always attached to a preceding word within a sentence, mirroring the usage of the clitic *bhante*. This distinction is therefore intrinsic to the syntactical and recitational structure of the canonical language itself, making explanations based on regional dialects or later scribal interpolations unnecessary.

Polak - Can Cessation Be a Cognitive State (2023)In the early Buddhist Nikāyas, the concept of *nirodha* (cessation) describes a special meditative state, achievable in life, that should be understood not as insentience but as a unique form of cognition. This state involves the cessation of the psychophysical constituents (*khandha-s* and *salāyatana-s*), which the article interprets, using modern philosophy of mind, as the cessation of ordinary, constructed phenomenal consciousness (*viññāna*). While this reportable, self-referential experience is suspended, a deeper, functional mind (*citta*) continues to operate in a non-introspectable, globally unavailable way. The soteriological purpose of this is to bypass the distorting nature of phenomenal consciousness—which is a constructed representation rather than a direct perception of the present—thereby allowing for a tacit, ineffable insight into reality as it is. This cognitive state is thus apophatic, transcending the familiar categories of self, time, and space that structure phenomenal experience, and results in a profound but non-reportable transformation.

Polak - Language, Conscious Experience and the Self in Early Buddhism (2018)This article reconstructs early Buddhist thought to argue that ordinary conscious experience is fundamentally shaped by language and conceptualization, a process that creates an illusory Self which is the root of suffering. This cognitive distortion begins with *saññā* (apperception), a labeling function that, through its inherent link to language, imposes a discrete, manifold structure (*papañca*) onto reality. The mind's tendency to reify grammatical forms is then misapplied to personal pronouns, constructing a continuous "narrative self" that is mistakenly identified as a real agent—a "speaker and feeler" (*vado vedeyyo*). Drawing on parallels in Western philosophy and modern cognitive science, the text argues this delusion involves misinterpreting phenomenal consciousness (represented by the five *khandha-s*)—which is merely a limited, unified representation of vast, non-conscious bodily processes—as the actual source of agency and subjectivity. This fundamental error of identifying with a fictional, linguistically-generated entity is psychologically taxing, distorts the experience of time, and constitutes the core of human suffering.

Polak - The Pleasure of Not Experiencing Anything (2023)Grzegorz Polak's article reconstructs the philosophical basis for the early Buddhist claim that the pleasure (*sukha*) of nibbāna lies in the absence of experience (*vedayita*). The author argues that *vedayita* and the five aggregates (*khandhas*) do not represent all cognition but a specific type of introspectable, reportable "access consciousness" that is inherently fabricated (*saṅkhāra*) and tied to a mistaken sense of self. Drawing on modern cognitive science, the paper posits that this form of consciousness is not continuous and its very generation is correlated with a subtle tension and fundamental discomfort (*dukkha*). Consequently, states of deep absorption or "flow" are pleasurable due to a lower frequency of this self-conscious awareness. The ultimate psychological transformation, therefore, involves ceasing to identify with one's consciousness, which allows for its absence to be realized not as annihilation, but as a profound, non-introspectable comfort (*sukha*) while the organism remains intelligently and receptively engaged with the world.

Polak - Who Identifies with the Aggregates (2023)This paper analyzes the Buddhist concept of identifying with the five aggregates (*khandhas*) as "I am this," challenging the traditional view that the aggregates are the objective constituents of a person by proposing they are instead passive, phenomenal representations of subjective experience. Drawing on Nikāya similes that imply a distinction between the individual and the aggregates, the author argues that key cognitive faculties like the mind (*citta*) operate separately from the *khandhas*, which are better understood as the end-results of cognitive processes rather than active agents themselves. Consequently, the fundamental error of identifying with the aggregates is interpreted as a mistaken projection of agency and identity onto one's own phenomenal self-representation, a process which, by attaching to something inherently distorted and unsatisfactory (*dukkha*), becomes a primary source of suffering.

Quiles - Nirvana and Metaphysical Experience (1979)The Buddhist concept of Nirvana is fundamentally a metaphysical experience, defined not as an abstract or rational conclusion but as a direct, immediate, and felt knowledge of ultimate reality or "Being." This experience, which transcends sensory perception, is the goal of Buddhism, aiming for a special wisdom (prajñā) or intuitive understanding of the Ultimate Truth that underlies all phenomena. Evidence from early texts like the *Buddha-carita*, which describes the Buddha's enlightenment as a perfect, intuitive knowledge of all things, and interpretations from scholars like D.T. Suzuki, who characterizes Satori as a profound, non-conceptual awakening, both support the view of Nirvana as an experiential encounter with the metaphysical foundation of existence itself.

Salomon - What Happened To Buddhism In India? (2018)Richard Salomon's essay explores the complex and controversial question of why Buddhism disappeared from India around the 13th century after thriving for over a millennium. Critiquing the common practice of listing multiple, disconnected causes—such as loss of patronage, persecution, internal decay, and Muslim invasions—Salomon argues that asking "why" is less fruitful than asking "how" the decline occurred. He contrasts the two dominant scholarly narratives - the "friendly embrace" theory, which posits that Hinduism peacefully assimilated a weakened Buddhism (Monier-Williams, R.C. Mitra), and the opposing view of relentless hostility and persecution (Giovanni Verardi). Through an analysis of several inscriptions, Salomon demonstrates a long and complex process of syncretism and absorption, showing the Buddha's incorporation as an avatāra of Viṣṇu, the equation of Buddhist and Hindu deities, and the veneration of Hindu gods like Vāsudeva within Buddhist contexts from an early period. Ultimately, he concludes that the most compelling explanation for Buddhism's demise is its gradual assimilation into the broader Hindu religious milieu, which caused it to lose its distinct identity over time.

Seeger - The Bhikkhunī-ordination controversy in Thailand (2006)The ordination of Chatsumarn Kabilsingh as Bhikkhunī Dhammanandā has sparked a significant controversy within Thai Theravāda Buddhism regarding the revival of the extinct female monastic lineage. Proponents argue for the legitimacy of female ordination by citing the validity of descendant lineages like the Dharmaguptaka, interpreting the Buddha's teachings as prioritizing spiritual potential over social convention, appealing to the Thai constitution's principles of gender equality and religious freedom, and critiquing the historical decision to "freeze" the monastic code (*Vinaya*). Conversely, traditionalists, including the Thai *saṅgha* and the influential monk Phra Payutto, maintain that a valid ordination is impossible because the *Vinaya* requires a dual ceremony involving an unbroken line of Theravāda nuns, which no longer exists. They argue that altering the canon or using a different lineage (*nānāsaṃvāsa*) would violate sacred texts and destroy the consensus essential for preserving the tradition's integrity. Amid this debate, some prominent female practitioners (*maechis*) and laywomen argue that a *bhikkhunī* order is unnecessary for spiritual practice and that women should focus on self-development within existing structures, while others propose para-monastic alternatives to accommodate modern needs without conflicting with canonical authority.

Sharma - Rune E. A. Johansson's Analysis of Citta (2018)In his critique of Rune E. A. Johansson's analysis, Arvind Sharma examines and refutes the theory that *citta* (mind) exists as a core personality factor separate from the five *skandhas* and survives death. Johansson argues that *citta* is an enduring element, distinct from *viññāna* (consciousness), which attains *nibbāna* and continues in a diluted, impersonal state after an *arahant's* death, citing as evidence the ability of *arahants* to recognize one another and scriptural accounts like the story of Vakkali. Sharma contends that this evidence is insufficient to challenge the standard Theravāda position that an *arahant's* post-mortem state is unpredictable. He counters that Johansson relies on a weak "argument from silence" and offers an alternative interpretation wherein an *arahant's* enlightenment is recognized precisely through the *non-recognizability* of their consciousness, rather than through an identifiable, surviving *citta*.

Shults - A Note on Refuge in Vedic and Pāli Texts (2016)This article explores the concept of refuge (*śaraṇa*/*saraṇa*) by tracing its development from Vedic to Pāli Buddhist texts, arguing that while the motif of a "triple refuge" existed in the *Ṛgveda* and later Vedic literature, it was primarily a ritualistic or protective formula for seeking shelter from gods like Indra. In contrast, early Buddhism repurposed this concept, imbuing it with a profound, personal, and transformative significance. Citing Pāli narratives such as those of Sumanā, Ubbirī, and Aṅgulimāla, the author demonstrates that for Buddhists, "going for refuge" was not merely a formal act but a pivotal "change of heart" marking a dramatic discontinuity in one's life, linked to inner realization, overcoming suffering, and renouncing a sinful past. This shift from a functional, ritualistic notion to an experience of profound personal conversion represents the key Buddhist innovation on the pre-existing Vedic motif.

Shults - A Note on Śramaṇa in Vedic Texts (2016)This article refutes Christopher Beckwith's claim that the term *śramaṇa* exclusively meant "Buddhist practitioner" in antiquity by demonstrating its pre-Buddhist origins and broader semantic range within the Vedic tradition. Citing evidence from texts such as the *Taittirīya Āraṇyaka*, *Jaiminīya Brāhmaṇa*, and the *Rgveda Saṃhitā*, the author shows that *śramaṇa* was used to mean "one who toils," "weary," or "unwearying" in contexts describing Vedic seers, sacrificial rituals, cattle, and even stones, all unrelated to Buddhism. The author supports and expands upon Patrick Olivelle's "development model," which traces the word's etymology to the Vedic root *√śram* (to toil, become weary), arguing that its various meanings developed organically within Brahmanical circles, thus providing the pre-existing conceptual framework for the term to be later applied to the Buddha and other ascetics.

Shults - On the Buddha's Use of Some Brahmanical Motifs in Pali Texts (2014)This paper by Brett Shults argues that Pali texts demonstrate a sophisticated and deliberate engagement with Brahmanical culture by strategically adopting and reinterpreting its motifs to articulate Buddhist teachings. Moving beyond the idea of a shared cultural vocabulary, the author illustrates how early Buddhists repurposed specific Brahmanical elements for their own didactic purposes. Examples range from metallurgical similes, where the Brahmanical concept of refining gold for ritual purity is transformed into a metaphor for mental purification, to the Buddha's detailed technical knowledge of the Sāvitrī mantra's gāyatrī meter. The analysis further shows how core Brahmanical practices, such as the agnihotra (fire sacrifice) and the three Vedic ritual fires, are systematically interiorized and ethicized, shifting their focus from external rites to internal development and social responsibilities, thereby challenging and supplanting the original Brahmanical framework using its own terms.

Skilling - The Advent of Theravāda Buddhism to Mainland South-east Asia (1997)Based on Pāli inscriptions from the 5th to 8th centuries CE found in the Pyu kingdom of Śrikṣetra (Burma) and the Mon kingdom of Dvāravatī (Siam), this paper argues for the predominance of Theravāda Buddhism in mainland Southeast Asia during the first millennium. The evidence lies in both the Pāli language of the epigraphs—a strong indicator of the Theravādin school—and their content, which includes specifically Theravādin recensions of canonical texts, Abhidhamma fragments, and non-canonical works like the Visuddhimagga. While establishing a Theravādin presence, the author finds it futile to trace its origins directly to either the Mahāvihāra or Abhayagiri schools of Ceylon due to a lack of conclusive evidence. Instead, the paper posits that this Buddhism evolved independently, influenced by various regions of India and developing a unique "local genius" seen in distinctive art and architecture. This flourishing Buddhist culture was not replicated in early Cambodia, where Brahmanism remained dominant and similar epigraphic and archaeological evidence is absent.

Smith - Was the Buddha an Anti-Realist (2015)This article argues against the view that the Buddha was an anti-realist, a position supported by scholars like Alex Wynne and Noa Ronkin who interpret apophatic passages in early texts, particularly the *Atthakavagga*, as a rejection of a mind-independent reality. The author contends that such interpretations take verses out of their broader, more cataphatic context, and that enigmatic statements about perception (*saññā*), views (*diṭṭhi*), and consciousness are better understood as psychological critiques of clinging and descriptions of jhānic meditation states rather than as metaphysical claims about an ineffable or constructed reality. In contrast, the author suggests the Buddha propounded an incomplete or "inchoate" metaphysics with realist leanings, pointing to the concept of contact (*phassa*) which implies distinct mental and physical entities, the assertion of the body's greater stability than the mind, and the objective truth-status of core doctrines like the Four Noble Truths. Ultimately, the Buddha's philosophy is presented as primarily ethical and soteriological, employing a pragmatic, non-foundationalist approach with a realist framework sufficient to ground his teachings on compassion and the path to ending suffering.

Sopa - The Special Theory of Pratītyasamutpāda (1986)The Buddhist concept of Nirvana is fundamentally a metaphysical experience, defined not as an abstract or rational conclusion but as a direct, immediate, and felt knowledge of ultimate reality or "Being." This experience, which transcends sensory perception, is the goal of Buddhism, aiming for a special wisdom (prajñā) or intuitive understanding of the Ultimate Truth that underlies all phenomena. Evidence from early texts like the *Buddha-carita*, which describes the Buddha's enlightenment as a perfect, intuitive knowledge of all things, and interpretations from scholars like D.T. Suzuki, who characterizes Satori as a profound, non-conceptual awakening, both support the view of Nirvana as an experiential encounter with the metaphysical foundation of existence itself.

Tillemans - Remarks on Philology (2018)In a reflection on the practice of philology within Buddhist Studies, Tom Tillemans argues against rigid methodological positions, instead defending the practical goal of understanding an author's thought through deep engagement with their language, history, and context. He counters the critique that philologists naively seek to eliminate all personal bias by suggesting that prejudices can be progressively challenged and refined, allowing for genuine progress in understanding. Tillemans addresses the central tension between interpreting a text "on its own terms" and using modern, author-alien concepts by introducing the logical distinction between *de re* and *de dicto* attributions of thought, which validates interpretations that are true to an author's thinking even if phrased in unfamiliar terms. He concludes by championing the necessity of rigorous, text-based philological work, warning that postmodern pragmatism should not be misused as a license to bypass the demanding but essential task of mastering the linguistic and historical foundations of the texts being studied.

Vetter - Explanations of dukkha (1984)In a philological analysis of the First Noble Truth, Tilmann Vetter argues that the concluding statement on the five aggregates (*upādānakkhandhā*) is not a summary of suffering (*dukkha*), but rather another example of it. He bases this on the presence of the coordinating particle *pi* ("also") in this final statement in older Pāli manuscripts, such as those used in Hermann Oldenberg's edition of the Mahāvagga. Vetter contends that later editors and commentators, notably Buddhaghosa, worked from texts where this *pi* was missing, leading them to develop an anachronistic interpretation of the aggregates as a summary or foundation for all other forms of suffering. He asserts that the original reading with *pi* is more historically sound, presenting the five aggregates as a distinct, added item in the list of things that are *dukkha*, with the term *sankhittena* ("in brief") indicating it is a concise point requiring further explanation, not a summation of what precedes it.

Wayman - The Sixteen Aspects of the Four Noble Truths and Their Opposites (2018)The sixteen aspects of the Four Noble Truths are a non-canonical elaboration found in Northern Buddhist Abhidharma texts, such as those by Vasubandhu and Asanga, but absent from the Southern tradition. This system assigns four specific aspects to each of the Four Noble Truths—Suffering, Source, Cessation, and Path—which are treated as objects of insight (*prajñā*). A key element of this framework is a corresponding list of sixteen "adversaries" or "coverings," detailed by Tsong-kha-pa, which represent mistaken views that obscure each aspect. Analyzing these aspects and their opposites reveals significant doctrinal debates; for instance, the aspects of Suffering (*duhkha, anitya, śūnya, anātman*) raise challenges in distinguishing 'voidness' from 'non-self', while the aspects for the Source of Suffering are linked to Dependent Origination and their adversaries to non-Buddhist theories of causality. The author proposes a correlation where the aspects for the Path lead to the aspects of Cessation, mapping them onto the three core Buddhist instructions of morality, mental training, and insight, thereby showing how the study of this framework illuminates the diverse ways different traditions interpreted their foundational teachings.

Wynne - Did the Buddha exist? (2019)In his article, Alexander Wynne argues against extreme skepticism regarding the Buddha's existence, presenting evidence that early Buddhist discourses are largely authentic historical records. He refutes claims that the Buddha is a myth by citing the high fidelity of the texts' oral transmission, archaeological and inscriptional evidence from the Aśokan era that corroborates details about the Buddha's clan and disciples, and the texts' consistent depiction of a pre-imperial India before the rise of large cities, coinage, and brick architecture. Wynne's central thesis is that the teachings reveal a singular and idiosyncratic personality—a quiet, pragmatic, and sometimes reticent teacher—whose unique and coherent philosophical system, characterized by concepts like 'not-self' and the dialectic of silence, is too distinctive and complex to have been invented by a committee, pointing instead to a single, historical founder.

Wynne - The ātman and its negation (2010)The famous Buddhist "No Self" (anātman) doctrine is largely absent from the earliest texts because the original teachings were founded on a different and more subtle philosophy than the later, standard interpretation. Early critiques, such as the "Not-Self" (anattā) teaching, are grounded in a principle of "epistemological conditioning," where fundamental concepts including "self," "existence," and even space-time are not ultimate realities but are dependently originated through cognitive processes. This is why the early texts pragmatically avoid direct ontological statements like "the self does not exist," instead guiding practitioners to see that identifying with conditioned phenomena is "unsuitable" and thereby transcend the very conceptual framework that creates a sense of self. The explicit "No Self" doctrine developed later, as seen in texts like the *Vajirā Sutta* and the Abhidharma, when this subtle philosophy gave way to a "reductionistic realism" that analyzes the person as a collection of essenceless components within an objectively real world, thus shifting the focus from a radical critique of conceptuality to the denial of a specific entity.

Wynne - The Oral Transmission Of Early Buddhist Literature (2004)Alexander Wynne examines two competing theories for the oral transmission of early Buddhist literature - one positing improvisation in performance, and another claiming a tradition of word-for-word accuracy. Wynne argues decisively for the latter, presenting extensive evidence from the Pāli canon to show that the ideal and practice was a relatively fixed transmission. He refutes the improvisation model by demonstrating that key texts, such as the *mahāpadesa*, emphasize learning the precise "words and letters" (*padavyañjanāni*) of teachings, and that mnemonic lists and repetitive structures were aids for exact memorization, not frameworks for improvisation. Conversely, he builds a strong case for verbatim recitation by citing monastic rules requiring the Pātimokkha to be learned "down to the letter" (*anuvyañjaso*), procedures in the *Kinti Sutta* for resolving disputes over exact wording, prohibitions against performative singing, and injunctions for communal chanting, which by nature requires a fixed text. Wynne concludes that while variations exist between sectarian canons due to redactional processes over time, the transmission was not improvisational but aimed for accuracy, thus validating the use of textual criticism to stratify the literature and reconstruct the history of early Buddhism.