Tagged: saṃsāra
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Clough - The higher knowledges in the Pāli Nikāyas and Vinaya (2010)
1In early Buddhist texts like the Pāli Nikāyas and Vinaya, the *abhiññās* or "higher knowledges" are an integral, though often overlooked, component of the path to liberation. These extraordinary abilities, attained in advanced states of meditation, typically include five mundane powers - supernormal feats (iddhi), divine ear, mind-reading, recollection of past lives, and the divine eye. A sixth, supermundane knowledge—the destruction of the mental defilements (āsavakkhayañāna) — is uniquely Buddhist and constitutes enlightenment itself. Although the Buddha expressed wariness about their pursuit and display, and they were not always considered essential for liberation, the abhiññās served crucial pedagogical, epistemological, and soteriological functions. They acted as signs of meditative progress, tools for teaching, and, most importantly, as a means to experientially verify core Buddhist doctrines like kamma, rebirth, and the Four Noble Truths, with the final three knowledges being central to the traditional account of the Buddha's own awakening.
Norman - Aspects of Early Buddhism (1990)
2In early Buddhism, the denial of a permanent self (attā) raises the question of what transmigrates through saṃsāra, with the Buddha refuting the idea of a permanent consciousness (viññāṇa) and instead proposing the doctrine of dependent origination (paṭicca-samuppāda). This causal chain explains how suffering arises from conditions like ignorance (avijjā) and craving (taṇhā), and liberation (nibbāna) is achieved by breaking this chain. The Pāli canon presents multiple, sometimes conflicting, paths to this goal, including the Buddha's own attainment of bodhi through meditative states (jhānas) and the destruction of the āsavas ("afflictions"), and the more widely taught Eight-Fold Path which leads to the cessation of suffering (dukkha-nirodha). Ultimately, nibbāna is not a state of being for a soul but is described as the uncompounded (asaṅkhata) and indescribable reality that remains when the conditioned elements (khandhas) that constitute an individual cease, thus ending the cycle of rebirth.
Sopa - The Special Theory of Pratītyasamutpāda (1986)
3The Buddhist concept of Nirvana is fundamentally a metaphysical experience, defined not as an abstract or rational conclusion but as a direct, immediate, and felt knowledge of ultimate reality or "Being." This experience, which transcends sensory perception, is the goal of Buddhism, aiming for a special wisdom (prajñā) or intuitive understanding of the Ultimate Truth that underlies all phenomena. Evidence from early texts like the *Buddha-carita*, which describes the Buddha's enlightenment as a perfect, intuitive knowledge of all things, and interpretations from scholars like D.T. Suzuki, who characterizes Satori as a profound, non-conceptual awakening, both support the view of Nirvana as an experiential encounter with the metaphysical foundation of existence itself.
Dhammananda - What Buddhists Believe (2002)
4What Buddhists Believe by Dr. K. Sri Dhammananda presents Buddhism as a rational and practical path to end suffering, founded by Gautama Buddha, a human teacher who achieved enlightenment through his own efforts. The core of his message lies in the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path, a 'Middle Way' that cultivates morality, mental discipline through meditation, and wisdom. Central doctrines include Karma, the natural law of cause and effect, and rebirth, which occurs without a permanent soul (Anatta). Rejecting blind faith and a creator god, Buddhism emphasises self-reliance, urging followers to verify truths for themselves and take personal responsibility for their salvation. The ultimate goal is Nirvana, a state of supreme peace and the cessation of all suffering, attainable not through prayer or rituals, but through the purification of one's own mind and the development of compassion and understanding for all beings.