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Susimaparibbājakasutta (The Discourse on the Renunciant Susima)

· 94 min read

12S2/1.7.10: the renunciant Susima, sent to learn the Dhamma for his assembly's gain, finds the bhikkhū who declare final knowledge liberated by wisdom without psychic powers, hears from the Bhagavā that the knowledge of the stability of the Dhamma comes before the knowledge of nibbāna, and confesses his theft of the Dhamma.

Original text: 12S2/1.7.10 Susimaparibbājakasutta 518–550 in the World Tipitaka Edition

Summary

Section titled “Summary”

Susima, a renunciant sent by his assembly to learn the Dhamma so that they may win back their gains, goes forth under the Bhagavā and questions bhikkhū who have declared final knowledge: they have none of the psychic powers or formless attainments, and call themselves liberated by wisdom. The Bhagavā tells him that the knowledge of the stability of the Dhamma comes first and the knowledge of nibbāna after, leads him through the five collections and the chain of dependent origination, and accepts his confession of having gone forth as a thief of the Dhamma.

Diagram

Section titled “Diagram”
flowchart TB
    A["renunciants of other sects lose their gains"] --> B["Susima sent to learn the Dhamma"]
    B --> C["goes forth under the Bhagavā"]
    C --> D["bhikkhū declare final knowledge"]
    D --> E["Susima's six questions: psychic powers to formless liberations"]
    E --> F["no: liberated by wisdom"]
    F --> G["the Bhagavā: stability of the Dhamma first, nibbāna after"]
    G --> H["five collections: impermanent, suffering, not-self"]
    H --> I["dependent origination: origin and cessation"]
    I --> J["Susima too has none of the powers"]
    J --> K["confession: a thief of the Dhamma"]
    K --> L["simile of the condemned thief"]
    L --> M["growth in the Discipline of the Liberated One"]

Text

Section titled “Text”

(70.)

518. Thus heard by me: At one time the Bhagavā was dwelling at Rājagaha, in the Bamboo Grove, at the Squirrels’ Feeding Place. Now at that time the Bhagavā was honoured, respected, esteemed, revered, and given homage, and he received robes, alms food, lodgings, and medicines for the sick. The Bhikkhu Saṅgha was also honoured, respected, esteemed, revered, and given homage, and they received robes, alms food, lodgings, and medicines for the sick. But the renunciants of other sects were not honoured, not respected, not esteemed, not revered, not given homage, and did not receive robes, alms food, lodgings, or medicines for the sick.

519. Now at that time Susima the renunciant was staying at Rājagaha with a large assembly of renunciants. Then Susima the renunciant’s assembly said this to Susima the renunciant: “Come, Āvuso Susima, lead the brahmacariya (optimal life) under the samaṇa (wanderer) Gotama. When you have learned the Dhamma, you can teach us. When we have learned that Dhamma, we will speak it to householders. In that way, we too will be honoured, respected, esteemed, revered, and given homage, and receive robes, alms food, lodgings, and medicines for the sick.” “Yes, Āvuso,” Susima the renunciant replied to his assembly, and then he approached āyasmā Ānanda. Having approached, he exchanged greetings with āyasmā Ānanda. When they had concluded their courteous and amiable talk, he sat down to one side. Seated to one side, Susima the renunciant said this to āyasmā Ānanda: “I wish, Āvuso Ānanda, to lead the optimal life in this Dhamma and Discipline.”

520. Then āyasmā Ānanda, taking Susima the renunciant with him, approached the Bhagavā. Having approached, he bowed to the Bhagavā and sat down to one side. Seated to one side, āyasmā Ānanda said this to the Bhagavā: “Bhante, this Susima the renunciant says: ‘I wish, Āvuso Ānanda, to lead the optimal life in this Dhamma and Discipline.’” “Then, Ānanda, ordain Susima.” Susima the renunciant gained the going forth in the presence of the Bhagavā, he gained the higher ordination.

521. Now at that time, many bhikkhū declared aññā (final knowledge) in the presence of the Bhagavā: “We know clearly: ‘Birth (of suffering) is finished, the optimal life is lived, what had to be done is done, there is nothing further for this present state of existence.’” Āyasmā Susima heard: “Many bhikkhū, it is said, have declared final knowledge in the presence of the Bhagavā: ‘We know clearly: Birth (of suffering) is finished, the optimal life is lived, what had to be done is done, there is nothing further for this present state of existence.’” Then āyasmā Susima approached those bhikkhū. Having approached, he exchanged greetings with those bhikkhū. When they had concluded their courteous and amiable talk, he sat down to one side. Seated to one side, āyasmā Susima said this to those bhikkhū: “Is it true, as is said, that you āyasmanto have declared final knowledge in the presence of the Bhagavā: ‘We know clearly: Birth (of suffering) is finished, the optimal life is lived, what had to be done is done, there is nothing further for this present state of existence’?” “Yes, Āvuso.”

522. “Then, āyasmanto, knowing and seeing thus, do you experience various kinds of psychic power: having been one, you become many; having been many, you become one; you appear and vanish, unhindered through walls, through ramparts, through mountains, as if through space; you dive in and out of the earth as if in water; you walk on water without breaking the surface as if on land; you travel through the air sitting cross-legged like a winged bird; you touch and stroke with your hand the moon and sun, so mighty and powerful; you exercise bodily mastery even as far as the Brahmā-world?” “Of course not, Āvuso.”

523. “Then, āyasmanto, knowing and seeing thus, do you, with the divine ear component, purified and surpassing that of humans, hear both kinds of sounds, divine and human, those that are far and those that are near?” “Of course not, Āvuso.”

524. “Then, āyasmanto, knowing and seeing thus, do you know clearly the minds of other beings, other persons, having encompassed them with your mind? Do you know a mind with lust as ‘mind with lust,’ or a mind without lust as ‘mind without lust’? Do you know a mind with hatred as ‘mind with hatred,’ or a mind without hatred as ‘mind without hatred’? Do you know a mind with delusion as ‘mind with delusion,’ or a mind without delusion as ‘mind without delusion’? Do you know a constricted mind as ‘constricted mind,’ or a distracted mind as ‘distracted mind’? Do you know an exalted mind as ‘exalted mind,’ or an unexalted mind as ‘unexalted mind’? Do you know a surpassable mind as ‘surpassable mind,’ or an unsurpassable mind as ‘unsurpassable mind’? Do you know a focused mind as ‘focused mind,’ or an unfocused mind as ‘unfocused mind’? Do you know a liberated mind as ‘liberated mind,’ or an unliberated mind as ‘unliberated mind’?” “Of course not, Āvuso.”

525. “Then, āyasmanto, knowing and seeing thus, do you recollect your manifold past lives, that is, one birth, two births, three births, four births, five births, ten births, twenty births, thirty births, forty births, fifty births, a hundred births, a thousand births, a hundred thousand births, many aeons of cosmic contraction, many aeons of cosmic expansion, many aeons of cosmic contraction and expansion: ‘There I was so-and-so by name, of such-and-such a clan, of such-and-such an appearance, getting such-and-such food, experiencing such-and-such pleasure and pain, having such-and-such a life span; dying there, I reappeared yonder; there too I was so-and-so by name, of such-and-such a clan, of such-and-such an appearance, getting such-and-such food, experiencing such-and-such pleasure and pain, having such-and-such a life span; dying there, I reappeared here.’ Thus you recollect your manifold past lives with their aspects and particulars?” “Of course not, Āvuso.”

526. “Then, āyasmanto, knowing and seeing thus, do you, with the divine eye, purified and surpassing that of humans, see beings passing away and reappearing, inferior and superior, fair and ugly, fortunate and unfortunate, and understand how beings pass on according to their actions: ‘These worthy beings indeed who were endowed with misconduct of body, speech, and mind, who reviled the liberated ones, held wrong views, and undertook actions based on wrong views, with the breakup of the body, after death, have reappeared in a state of deprivation, a bad destination, a lower realm, hell; but these worthy beings who were endowed with good conduct of body, speech, and mind, who did not revile the liberated ones, held right views, and undertook actions based on right views, with the breakup of the body, after death, have reappeared in a good destination, a heavenly world’? Thus, with the divine eye, purified and surpassing that of humans, you see beings passing away and reappearing, inferior and superior, fair and ugly, fortunate and unfortunate, and understand how beings pass on according to their actions?” “Of course not, Āvuso.”

527. “Then, āyasmanto, knowing and seeing thus, do you dwell having touched with your body those peaceful liberations that transcend form, the formless ones?” “Of course not, Āvuso.”

528. “Here now, āyasmanto, there is both this declaration and the non-attainment of these qualities. How then, Āvuso, is this?” “We are indeed paññāvimuttā (liberated by wisdom), Āvuso Susima.”

529. “Indeed, I do not understand the detailed meaning of this statement made by you āyasmanto in brief. Please, āyasmanto, speak to me in such a way that I may understand the detailed meaning of this statement made by you āyasmanto in brief.” “Whether you understand, Āvuso Susima, or you do not understand, still we are liberated by wisdom.”

530. Then āyasmā Susima rose from his seat and approached the Bhagavā. Having approached, he bowed to the Bhagavā and sat down to one side. Seated to one side, āyasmā Susima related to the Bhagavā all the conversation he had had with those bhikkhū. [The Bhagavā said:] “First, Susima, there is indeed dhammaṭṭhitiñāṇaṃ (the knowledge of the stability of the Dhamma: dependent origination), and afterwards there is the knowledge of nibbāna (extinguishment).”

531. “Indeed, Bhante, I do not understand the detailed meaning of this statement made by the Bhagavā in brief. Please, Bhante, speak to me in such a way that I may understand the detailed meaning of this statement made by the Bhagavā in brief.” “Whether you understand, Susima, or you do not understand, still there is first the knowledge of the stability of the Dhamma, and afterwards the knowledge of extinguishment.

532. “Susima, what do you consider: is rūpaṃ (form) permanent or impermanent?” “Impermanent, Bhante.” “Now, is that which is impermanent suffering or happiness?” “Suffering, Bhante.” “Now, is it proper to regard that which is impermanent, suffering, and subject to change, as: ‘This is mine, this I am, this is my self’?” “Of course not, Bhante.” “Is vedanā (feeling) permanent or impermanent?” “Impermanent, Bhante.” “Now, is that which is impermanent suffering or happiness?” “Suffering, Bhante.” “Now, is it proper to regard that which is impermanent, suffering, and subject to change, as: ‘This is mine, this I am, this is my self’?” “Of course not, Bhante.” “Is saññā (apperception) permanent or impermanent?” “Impermanent, Bhante.” … and so on … “Are saṅkhārā (mental constructions) permanent or impermanent?” “Impermanent, Bhante.” “Now, is that which is impermanent suffering or happiness?” “Suffering, Bhante.” “Now, is it proper to regard that which is impermanent, suffering, and subject to change, as: ‘This is mine, this I am, this is my self’?” “Of course not, Bhante.” “Is viññāṇaṃ (consciousness) permanent or impermanent?” “Impermanent, Bhante.” “Now, is that which is impermanent suffering or happiness?” “Suffering, Bhante.” “Now, is it proper to regard that which is impermanent, suffering, and subject to change, as: ‘This is mine, this I am, this is my self’?” “Of course not, Bhante.”

533. “Therefore, Susima, whatever form there is, past, future, or present, internal or external, coarse or fine, inferior or superior, far or near — all form: ‘This is not mine, this I am not, this is not my self’; thus this should be regarded yathābhūtaṃ (in reality), with sammappaññā (correct understanding). Whatever feeling there is, past, future, or present, internal or external, coarse or fine, inferior or superior, far or near — all feeling: ‘This is not mine, this I am not, this is not my self’; thus this should be regarded in reality, with correct understanding. Whatever apperception there is … and so on … whatever mental constructions there are, past, future, or present, internal or external, coarse or fine, inferior or superior, far or near — all mental constructions: ‘This is not mine, this I am not, this is not my self’; thus this should be regarded in reality, with correct understanding. Whatever consciousness there is, past, future, or present, internal or external, coarse or fine, inferior or superior, far or near — all consciousness: ‘This is not mine, this I am not, this is not my self’; thus this should be regarded in reality, with correct understanding.

534. “Thus seeing, Susima, the sutavā (learned) ariyasāvako (disciple of the liberated) nibbindati (is disenchanted with) form, feeling, apperception, mental constructions, consciousness. Being disenchanted, he virajjati (becomes detached). From detachment he vimuccati (becomes liberated). In liberation there is the ñāṇaṃ (knowledge): ‘liberated’. He pajānāti (knows clearly): ‘Birth (of suffering) is finished, the optimal life is lived, what had to be done is done, there is nothing further for this present state of existence.’”

535. “Do you see, Susima: ‘With jāti (birth of suffering) as cause, jarāmaraṇaṃ (ageing and death) [arise]’?” “Yes, Bhante.” “Do you see, Susima: ‘With bhavo (existence of a false perception of an eternal independent “self” (atta)) as cause, birth [arises]’?” “Yes, Bhante.” “Do you see, Susima: ‘With upādānaṃ (fuel for existence: the will to live) as cause, existence [arises]’?” “Yes, Bhante.” “Do you see, Susima: ‘With taṇhā (craving) as cause, fuel [arises]’?” “Yes, Bhante.” “Do you see, Susima: ‘With feeling as cause, craving [arises]’ … ‘With phasso (contact) as cause, feeling [arises]’ … ‘With saḷāyatanaṃ (the six sense bases) as cause, contact [arises]’ … ‘With nāmarūpaṃ (phenomenal objects) as cause, the six sense bases [arise]’ … ‘With consciousness as cause, phenomenal objects [arise]’ … ‘With mental constructions as cause, consciousness [arises]’ … ‘With avijjā (ignorance) as cause, mental constructions [arise]’?” “Yes, Bhante.”

536. “Do you see, Susima: ‘With the cessation of birth comes the cessation of ageing and death’?” “Yes, Bhante.” “Do you see, Susima: ‘With the cessation of existence comes the cessation of the birth (of suffering)’?” “Yes, Bhante.” “Do you see, Susima: ‘With the cessation of fuel comes the cessation of existence (constructed self)’ … ‘With the cessation of craving comes the cessation of fuel for existence’ … ‘With the cessation of feeling comes the cessation of craving’ … ‘With the cessation of contact comes the cessation of feeling’ … ‘With the cessation of the six sense bases comes the cessation of contact’ … ‘With the cessation of phenomenal objects comes the cessation of the six sense bases’ … ‘With the cessation of consciousness comes the cessation of phenomenal objects’ … ‘With the cessation of mental constructions comes the cessation of consciousness’ … ‘With the cessation of ignorance comes the cessation of mental constructions’?” “Yes, Bhante.”

537. “Then, Susima, knowing and seeing thus, do you experience various kinds of psychic power: having been one, you become many; having been many, you become one; you appear and vanish, unhindered through walls, through ramparts, through mountains, as if through space; you dive in and out of the earth as if in water; you walk on water without breaking the surface as if on land; you travel through the air sitting cross-legged like a winged bird; you touch and stroke with your hand the moon and sun, so mighty and powerful; you exercise bodily mastery even as far as the Brahmā-world?” “Of course not, Bhante.”

538. “Then, Susima, knowing and seeing thus, do you, with the divine ear component, purified and surpassing that of humans, hear both kinds of sounds, divine and human, those that are far and those that are near?” “Of course not, Bhante.”

539. “Then, Susima, knowing and seeing thus, do you know clearly the minds of other beings, other persons, having encompassed them with your mind? Do you know a mind with lust as ‘mind with lust,’ … and so on … do you know a liberated mind as ‘liberated mind’?” “Of course not, Bhante.”

540. “Then, Susima, knowing and seeing thus, do you recollect your manifold past lives, that is, one birth … and so on … Thus you recollect your manifold past lives with their aspects and particulars?” “Of course not, Bhante.”

541. “Then, Susima, knowing and seeing thus, do you, with the divine eye, purified and surpassing that of humans, see beings passing away … and so on … and understand how beings pass on according to their actions?” “Of course not, Bhante.”

542. “Then, Susima, knowing and seeing thus, do you dwell having touched with your body those peaceful liberations that transcend form, the formless ones?” “Of course not, Bhante.”

543. “Here now, Susima, there is both this declaration and the non-attainment of these qualities. How then, Susima, is this?”

544. Then āyasmā Susima prostrated himself with his head at the Bhagavā’s feet and said this to the Bhagavā: “An offence has overcome me, Bhante, as if I were a fool, as if I were deluded, as if I were unskilful, in that I, a thief of the Dhamma, went forth in such a well-proclaimed Dhamma and Discipline. May the Bhagavā accept my offence as an offence, Bhante, for future restraint.”

545. “Indeed, Susima, an offence has overcome you, as if you were a fool, as if you were deluded, as if you were unskilful, in that you, a thief of the Dhamma, went forth in such a well-proclaimed Dhamma and Discipline. Just as, Susima, they would seize a wrongdoer, a thief, and present him to the king, saying: ‘This, your majesty, is a wrongdoer, a thief. Inflict upon him whatever punishment you wish.’ And the king would say: ‘Go, sirs, bind this man tightly with a strong rope, his arms behind his back, shave his head, parade him with a harsh-sounding drum from street to street, from crossroads to crossroads, take him out by the southern gate, and cut off his head to the south of the city.’ Then the king’s men would bind that man tightly with a strong rope, his arms behind his back, shave his head, parade him with a harsh-sounding drum from street to street, from crossroads to crossroads, take him out by the southern gate, and cut off his head to the south of the city. Susima, what do you consider: would that man experience pain and displeasure on that account?” “Yes, Bhante.”

546. “The pain and displeasure, Susima, that man would indeed experience on that account — the going forth of a Dhamma thief in such a well-proclaimed Dhamma and Discipline is more painful and more bitter in its result than that, and moreover it leads to a state of suffering. But since indeed, Susima, you see your offence as an offence and make amends for it in accordance with the Dhamma, we accept that from you. For it is a growth, Susima, in the Discipline of the Liberated One when one sees one’s offence as an offence, makes amends for it in accordance with the Dhamma, and undertakes future restraint.”

547. The tenth.

548. The Mahāvagga (Great Chapter), the seventh.

549. Its summary:

550. Two Assutavā [suttas] were spoken,
and another with the Puttamaṃsa;
Atthirāga and Nagara,
Sammasa and Naḷakalāpī;
Kosambī and Upayanti,
and the tenth with Susima.

Commentary

Section titled “Commentary”
  • Liberation by wisdom without the psychic powers or the formless attainments is the text’s point; the analysis is on buddhavacana’s Susima page: https://buddhavacana.github.io/sutta/susima/.
  • Glossary renderings: paribbājaka “renunciant”, samaṇa “wanderer”, aññā “final knowledge”, paññāvimutta “liberated by wisdom”; dhammaṭṭhitiñāṇa keeps the buddhavacana gloss “the knowledge of the stability of the Dhamma: dependent origination”.
  • The six questions (522–527, put to Susima again in 537–542) list the abhiññā (experiential understandings) the text sets aside; a note for the author’s rational reading.
  • The catechism (532–534) and the chain (535–536) are worded as the buddhavacana page and the textbook’s chapter 3; …pe… is “… and so on …”.
  • The edition cuts 533 at the semicolon (attāti; evametaṃ …), so each unit carries its own clause; buddhavacana reads the sentence as one.
  • 547–550, the vagga’s colophon and uddāna (summary verse), are new to the sites; the sutta titles stay as names.

Parallels

Section titled “Parallels”

The Chinese parallel is the 347th sūtra of the 雜阿含經 (Saṃyuktāgama; fascicle 14, CBETA T02, no. 99, pp. 96b–98a), one of the discourses on which Choong’s comparison of the two Saṃyutta collections leans (Choong, 2000), read here in CBETA’s text. The two agree in frame and sequence: at Rājagaha in the Kalandaka Bamboo Grove (王舍城迦蘭陀竹園, p. 96b) the Buddha and the Saṅgha are honoured with robes, food, lodging and medicine while the other sects are not; the sects send Susima (須深) to go forth and bring back the Dhamma; he is ordained, hears bhikkhus declare final knowledge in the four-part formula (生死已盡，梵行已立，所作已作，自知不受後有, p. 97a), finds that they claim no attainments and call themselves liberated by wisdom (慧解脫, p. 97a), and reports the conversation to the Buddha, who answers that the knowledge of the stability of the Dhamma comes first and the knowledge of nibbāna after (先知法住，後知涅槃, p. 97b), leads him through dependent origination, asks whether one who knows and sees thus has the attainments, and accepts his confession of going forth as a thief of the Dhamma (盜密出家, p. 97c) with the simile of the condemned thief. The differences, checked in CBETA’s text:

  • Who sends Susima. In the Pāḷi he already leads a large assembly of renunciants at Rājagaha, and it is his own assembly that sends him (519); in the Chinese many outsiders gathered in a hall (未曾講堂) look for someone able to infiltrate the Buddha’s community and are told of a clever youth named Susima (有一年少，名曰須深，聰明黠慧), whom they go and invite (p. 96c). The Chinese names the lost donors, kings, ministers, brahmins and householders (王、大臣、婆羅門、長者、居士, p. 96b); the Pāḷi names none.
  • The ordination. In the Pāḷi āyasmā Ānanda brings him to the Bhagavā, who says only “Then, Ānanda, ordain Susima” (520); in the Chinese bhikkhus walking in the open outside their lodgings bring him, and the Buddha, “knowing the thought in the mind of the outsider Susima” (知外道須深心之所念), tells them to let him go forth (p. 97a). The Pāḷi says nothing of the Bhagavā knowing his intent.
  • The declaration. In the Pāḷi many bhikkhū declare final knowledge in the Bhagavā’s presence and Susima, hearing of it, goes to them (521); in the Chinese one bhikkhu tells Susima directly, half a month after his going forth (出家已經半月, p. 97a).
  • The questions. The Pāḷi asks six questions, the five psychic powers from the kinds of iddhi to the divine eye and then the peaceful formless liberations (522–527); the Chinese asks about the four jhāna (初禪 … 第四禪), each in its stock formula and each ending “without arousing the defilements, is the mind well liberated?” (不起諸漏，心善解脫耶), and then the formless liberations (寂靜解脫起色、無色，身作證具足住, p. 97a). Susima’s objection that their words contradict each other (所說不同，前後相違) and the bhikkhus’ leaving their seats are in the Chinese alone (p. 97a).
  • The Bhagavā’s answer. Both give “first the knowledge of the stability of the Dhamma, afterwards the knowledge of nibbāna”; the Chinese adds each time that “those sons of good family, alone in a quiet place, contemplating earnestly, dwelling heedfully, free from the view of self, do not arouse the defilements and their minds are well liberated” (獨一靜處，專精思惟，不放逸住，離於我見，不起諸漏，心善解脫, p. 97b, p. 97c).
  • The teaching. The Pāḷi first takes Susima through the five collections, impermanent, suffering and not-self (532–534), then the chain in origin and cessation (535–536); the Chinese has the chain alone, in the form “because there is birth there is ageing and death; ageing and death are not apart from birth” (有生故有老死，不離生有老死, p. 97b), the middle links abbreviated. The Pāḷi then repeats the six questions to Susima (537–542); the Chinese asks once whether one who knows and sees thus attains “separation from sensual desire … up to realising with the body” (離欲、惡不善法，乃至身作證具足住, p. 97b–c), and closes the teaching with “this is called knowing first the stability of the Dhamma and afterwards nibbāna” (p. 97c).
  • Susima’s attainment. The Chinese has him gain the Dhamma Eye (遠塵離垢，得法眼淨) at the end of the teaching (p. 97c) and, as the simile ends, “the defilements ended and the mind liberated” (漏盡意解, p. 98a); the Pāḷi reports no attainment.
  • The confession. In the Chinese the Buddha asks how he went forth as a thief and Susima recounts the outsiders’ plan in full (p. 97c); the Buddha accepts, has him confess in a set form (“formerly I was foolish, unskilful and ignorant …”, 我昔愚癡、不善、無智) and states the principle that whoever sees and knows his offence and confesses gains restraint, growing merit and no decline (律儀成就，功德增長，終不退減, p. 97c), which the Pāḷi gives as “a growth in the Discipline of the Liberated One” (546).
  • The simile. In the Pāḷi the thief is bound, shaved, paraded with a harsh drum, taken out by the southern gate and beheaded (545); in the Chinese the king’s patrolmen (防邏者) bind him, proclaim him through the country, take him to the execution ground outside the city and pierce his whole body with a hundred spears (劖以百矛), a hundred more at noon and a hundred more at dusk, and he still does not die (p. 97c–98a). Two questions follow, whether any part of his body the size of a palm is intact and whether he suffers extreme pain, and the moral is “this is still bearable; one who goes forth as a thief in the true Dhamma and Vinaya, steals the Dhamma and teaches it to others, will suffer far more than that” (當受苦痛倍過於彼, p. 98a); the Pāḷi says the Dhamma thief’s going forth “is more painful and more bitter in its result … and leads to a state of suffering” (546).

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References

Section titled “References”
Choong, M. (2000). The Fundamental Teachings of Early Buddhism: A Comparative Study Based on the Sūtrāṅga Portion of the Pāli Saṃyutta-Nikāya and the Chinese Saṃyuktāgama. Harrassowitz.

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